Colonial Mexico's racial hierarchy and occupational segregation

Racial hierarchy and labor division existed in Spanish colonial Mexico, that influenced social, economic, and political development. These structures persisted for centuries with minimal immediate reform, but their inherent inequalities gradually intensified social contradictions, laying groundwork for historical turning points, such as the Mexican War of Independence.

The Spanish conquest of Mexico between 1519 and 1521 marked a pivotal transformation in the region's history. Led by Hernán Cortés, Spanish forces, allied with various indigenous groups discontented with Aztec rule, overthrew the Aztec Empire and captured its capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1521.^[1] The interaction between Spanish and indigenous cultures during this period gave rise to Mexico’s mestizo culture, a defining element of its national identity that endures today. This conquest was facilitated by strategic alliances, superior weaponry, and the devastating impact of European diseases on the native population.^[2] The aftermath saw the establishment of New Spain, integrating vast territories into the Spanish colonial empire. This period also introduced significant socio-economic structures, notably the Casta system, which stratified society based on racial ancestry. The Casta system delineated specific roles and privileges for various racial groups, profoundly influencing colonial society's economic and social dynamics.^[3]

The casta system had a profound impact on the social structure.The Spanish Crown formalized these racial hierarchies through royal decrees, such as Philip II's 1578 ordinance that mandated public display of one's casta in official documents. Spanish colonial authorities enforced these divisions through legal codes like the "Leyes de Indias,"which restricted non-consensual interracial marriages while allowing voluntary unions.^[4]

In colonial Mexico, Spanish authorities implemented the Casta system, a hierarchical framework categorizing individuals based on racial ancestry.^[5] The Spanish Crown formalized these racial hierarchies through royal decrees, such as Philip II's 1578 ordinance that mandated public display of one's casta in official documents. This system emerged from the intermingling of Spaniards, indigenous peoples, and Africans, leading to diverse mixed-race populations. The primary classifications included:

• Peninsulares: Spaniards born in Spain, occupying the highest social and administrative positions.
• Criollos: Individuals of Spanish descent born in the Americas, often wealthy landowners or merchants but generally excluded from top governmental roles.
• Mestizo: Offspring of Spaniards and indigenous peoples, typically engaged in artisanal trades or small-scale farming.
• Mulatos: Children of Spaniards and Africans, frequently laborers or artisans.
• Indios and Negros: Indigenous and African individuals, respectively, often subjected to forced labor and occupying the lowest societal tiers.

This stratification dictated social status, economic opportunities, and legal rights, reinforcing Spanish dominance and institutionalizing racial discrimination. Spanish colonial authorities enforced these divisions through legal codes like the "Leyes de Indias,"which prohibited interracial marriages only if they were forced, not all interracial unions.

During almost the same period, the Spanish introduced systems like the encomienda and repartimiento.

• Encomienda : This system granted Spanish settlers (encomenderos) the right to extract labor and tribute from specific indigenous communities. In return, encomenderos were expected to provide protection and religious instruction. However, in practice, it led to widespread exploitation and abuse of indigenous workers.^[6]
• Repartimiento : Implemented as a reform to address abuses of the Encomienda, the Repartimiento system mandated that indigenous men work for Spanish settlers for a set number of days annually, supposedly with compensation.^[7]

The Casta system in colonial Mexico not only established a social hierarchy but also assigned specific economic roles to various racial groups, deeply influencing the labor structure and economic landscape of New Spain. Peninsulares (Spanish-born elites) and Criollos (American-born Spaniards) monopolized administrative roles and major commerce, while Indigenous and Afro-descended populations were systematically relegated to agricultural labor and domestic servitude.^[8]

At the apex of the colonial social structure were the peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain, and the Criollos, individuals of Spanish descent born in the Americas. Peninsulares typically held the most lucrative positions in government and the church, controlling significant economic resources. Criollos, while often managing land and businesses, faced discrimination compared to their Peninsular counterparts. Both groups dominated landownership and held high-ranking administrative positions, thereby consolidating economic and political power within the Spanish elite.^[9]

Below the peninsulares and criollos were the mestizos (individuals of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry) and mulatos (individuals of mixed European and African ancestry). Mestizos often worked as artisans, small-scale merchants, or overseers on estates, serving as intermediaries between the upper and lower classes. Mulatos were typically employed in manual labor, domestic service, or as skilled tradespeople. Indigenous peoples (Indios) were compelled to work in agriculture, often on communal lands or Spanish-owned haciendas, and were subjected to labor systems like the Repartimiento, a colonial labor system imposing forced labor upon the indigenous population. Africans and their descendants (Negros) frequently faced enslavement, being forced to labor in plantations, mines, and urban domestic settings. This stratification reinforced the racial hierarchy, limiting social mobility and ensuring that the colonial economy served Spanish interests.^[10]

The colonial labor systems, particularly the encomienda and repartimiento, subjected indigenous peoples to forced labor under harsh conditions, leading to significant population declines due to overwork, malnutrition, and exposure to European diseases. The encomienda system, for instance, granted Spanish settlers the right to extract labor and tribute from indigenous communities, which routinely led to exploitation and abuse. Similarly, African slaves endured grueling labor in plantations, mines, and urban settings, facing inhumane treatment and limited legal rights. The introduction of African slavery made thousands being transported under brutal conditions.^[11]

Resistance among these oppressed groups took various forms, from subtle acts of defiance to organized uprisings. Indigenous communities engaged in rebellions and preserved cultural practices in secret as a means of resistance. A notable example is the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, where Pueblo peoples successfully expelled Spanish colonizers for over a decade.^[12] Similarly, enslaved Africans in Mexico City plotted revolts, such as the 1537 conspiracy aiming to dispossess Spaniards, demonstrating their resilience against oppression.^[13]

Within the rigid structure of the Casta system, individuals and groups sought social mobility and resisted oppression through various means. One such method was 'blood mending,' where individuals attempted to alter their official racial classifications to attain higher social standing. This process involved presenting documentation or witnesses to attest to European ancestry, effectively moving closer to the Spanish lineage. Legal disputes, such as the 1778 case of José de Sevilla, highlight efforts to change racial classifications for social advancement.^[14]

Marriages across racial lines, though often legally restricted, also served as a means of improving social status. The 1778 marriage dispute between Jerónimo Marini and Bárbara Álvarez illustrates the complexities and challenges of such unions within the Casta system.^[15] Additionally, some individuals of African descent achieved elevated statuses through military service on the colonial frontier, as seen in the case of Pedro Huizar, who rose to the rank of 'Don' and altered his racial status.^[16]

The wars of independence in the early 19th century challenged the existing social and economic orders, leading to the eventual dismantling of the Casta system. The abolition of slavery in 1829, under the Vicente Guerrero regime, marked a significant shift, although enforcement was limited, especially in regions like Texas.^[17] Economic changes, including the transition to wage labor, further eroded traditional labor systems.^[18] However, the legacy of these systems persisted, influencing social structures and racial dynamics in post-colonial Mexican society.

The colonial racial hierarchies and labor divisions have left enduring marks on modern Mexican society. Miscegenation led to a blending of cultures but also resulted in the marginalization of Afro-Mexican identities, with many descendants assimilating into broader mestizo categories.^[19] This erasure was compounded by colonial-era policies that equated "progress" with Europeanization, actively suppressing African cultural expressions such as music, language, and religious practices. This assimilation has led to a diminished recognition of African heritage in contemporary Mexico. Racial prejudices persist, with individuals of darker skin tones facing discrimination and social challenges.