利用者:高梨佐渡守勝清/sandbox3

パンノニア公国(パンノニアこうこく)とは、初期スラブ人が、かつて古代ローマの属州パンノニアがあった地域に建国した中世初期の国家のことである。この地域は下パンノニア(ラテン語: Pannonia inferior, ハンガリー語: Alsó-pannoniai grófság, クロアチア語: Donja Panonija)と呼ばれたが、この下とは、カルパチア盆地(ラーバ川の南部から東部に広がる盆地)のことを指し、上・下とはローマ帝国の統治制度における専門用語のことである。

6世紀中頃から8世紀の終わりにかけて、この地域はアヴァール人が支配しており、パンノニアの原住民であるスラブ人はアヴァール人の配下の部族となっていた。しかしながら、9世紀初頭、アヴァールのパンノニア統治は終焉を迎え、パンノニア地域はフランク王国の影響下に置かれだ。そして、のちにマジャール人により征服される（英語版）までこの体制が続いた^[1]^[2]^[3]

フランク王国の統治下では、下パンノニア地域はフランク国王の配下である現地のスラブ人統治者によって治められていた。フランクの行政制度に基づいてen: March of Pannoniaが制定され、フランク人の伯による直接統治が上パンノニアにまで拡大されたものの、依然として下パンノニアはフランク王国の統治下の元で現地スラブ人により公国として治められていた。しかし9世紀中頃には、フランク人に代わってブルガリア人・モラヴィア人がこの地を統治するようになった^[1]^[2]^[4] 。

それから10世紀までの間に、頻発したマジャール人の侵攻によって現地のスラブ人は二つのグループに分裂し、のちの西スラブ人・南スラブ人を構成する要因となった。

背景

→詳細は「Pannonian Avars」、「Early Slavs」、「Sclaveni」、「Antes (people)」、「Slavic migrations to the Balkans」、および「Origin hypotheses of the Croats」を参照

ローマ帝国によるパンノニア属州統治は5世紀の間に崩壊し、続いてフン族、ゴート族、ランゴバルド人らがパンノニア地域を統治した。東ローマ帝国の皇帝ユスティヌス2世の治世の頃からロンバルド-ゲピド戦争（英語版）の頃にかけて、パンノニアはアヴァール人により侵攻され始め、568年にはアヴァールによって完全に征服された。アヴァールの統治の下で、(　5世紀中ごろのフン族統治の時代^[5]からこの地に定住し始めていた　)いくつかの原始スラブ族が、6世紀から7世紀にかけて完全にパンノニアに定着し、パンノニアの原住民となったとされている。

Roman rule in Pannonian regions collapsed during the 5th century, and was replaced by subsequent domination of Huns, Goths and Langobards. During the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justin II (565-578), and following the Lombard-Gepid War in 567, Pannonia was invaded by Avars who subsequently conquered almost entire Pannonian Plain (568). Although it is possible that some small Proto-Slavic groups could have arrived in the "middle of the 5th century and the time of Hunnish domination",^[5] during the 6th and 7th centuries, Pannonian regions were certainly inhabited by Slavs, who were under the Avarian rule.^[6]^[7]

公国の成立

Wonomyrus Sclavusの治世

フランク王国のアヴァール遠征中における(795年)パンノニアの情勢をフランク王国年代記は記している。年代記によると、フリウーリを統治していたフランク貴族Eric, Duke of Friuliはスラブ人の指導者Wonomyrus Sclavusをパンノニアに派遣したとされ、Wonomyrus Sclavusはアヴァール統治下のパンノニア(ドナウ川とテサ川の間の地域)を荒らしまわったという。翌年、フランク人はアヴァールを打ちまかし、フランク王国の領域はドナウ川中流域にまで東方に拡大した^[8]。9世紀中頃、パンノニアを拠点とする人々の大部分はスラブ人によって占められていた(besides "Pannonian Slavs" including Dulebes and possibly some Croats^[9]),^[10] and Christian Avars were also found in Lower Pannonia in 873.^[11] 。

Ljudevit の治世

アヴァール人による統治が終わったのち、パンノニア・スラブ人はフランク王国の宗主下にあった。初めは、地元のスラブ人統治者はフランクの辺境地域を統治する行政区画の一つであるMarch of Pannoniaに組み込まれており、それはフランク人の一次資料からも知ることができる。スラブ人の王子Ljudevitもまた、フランク王国年代記において下パンノニア公として言及されており(ラテン語: Liudewiti, ducis Pannoniae inferioris)、^[12]^[13]、彼はその後、811-822年にかけて、フランク王国に対して反乱を起こしたとも記されている^[14]。彼がなぜ反乱を起こしたのかはよく分かっていないが、おそらくはフランク王国からより自主性の強い独立を勝ち取るという野望が原因ではないかと推測されている^[15] 。彼はCarantaniansとCarniola、また年代記によるとザルツブルク周辺のスラブ人を味方につけ、Fortunatus (Patriarch of Grado)から支援を受けていたとされ、この現実的な脅威がかつてパンノニアを支配したアヴァール人の勢いを彷彿とさせたという^[16] 。Ljudevitの砦はシサク(ラテン語: Siscia)という、かつて古代ローマの属州パンノニア・サウィアの州都とされていた町にあった^[17]^[18]。しかしながら、彼の公国の国境線がどのようなものであったかは不明である。というのも、下パンノニアというと一般的にかつての古代ローマの属州Pannonia Secundaの領域内のうち、DravaとSavaの間の地域だけでなく、それらの川の北側と東側をも指すことが多いからである^[14]。この時期の彼の統治範囲は、 Timok Valleyを拠点としていたTimočaniという部族と同盟したという歴史書の記述に基づいて、より東方に拡大したと考えられている。上記のようにLjudevitの公国領が拡大したことで、フランク王国とBorna of Dalmatiaに対して反乱を起こせるだけの軍事力を擁するほどにまで強力な国家となった^[15]。しかしながら、この反乱は失敗し、Ljudevitは亡くなった。

Ljudevitの反乱が失敗に終わったのち、827年、下パンノニアとその北部に広がるフランク王国領の一部がブルガリアのハーンであるオムルタグ率いるブルガール人によって侵略され^[19]^[20]、ブルガール人はパンノニアに統治者を据え置き^[21]、ブルガール人とフランク人はパンノニアを巡り争うこととなった。この紛争によりパンノニアとその近辺に居住していたプレデネセンティ族（英語版）やTimočani族に対するブルガールやフランクによる支配体制がより強まった^[21] 。828年、ルートヴィヒ2世がパンノニアに反撃を仕掛けたことで、パンノニアは4つの国に分裂した。そのうちの1つはDuchy of Croatiaとなり^[22]、パンノニアは再びPannonian Marchに属することとなった。この２つの国はどちらも東フランク王国の属国となった^[21]。翌年、ブルガール人が再びパンノニアに侵攻したものの、大した成功をなさなかった。しかしながら、パンノニアは領土の東部をブルガール人に奪われてしまい、第一次ブルガリア帝国領に組み込まれてしまった^[21]。

こののち、838年、パンノニアのスラブ人王子Ratimirは、下パンノニア地域の統治を認められた。彼はブルガリア帝国の統治者として東部パンノニアも治めていたという^[23]。

After Ljudevit's failed uprising and death,^[24] in 827 the Bulgars under Great Khan Omurtag invaded and conquered Lower Pannonia and parts of Frankish territories to the north.^[19]^[20] They also installed their own governors.^[21] The Bulgarian-Frankish conflict was probably spurred over the control of the tribes of Timočani and Abodrites.^[21] German King Louis in 828 made a counterattack and eventually March of Friuli was divided into four counties. One of them probably was early Duchy of Croatia (which also expanded upon the territory of Sisak^[22]) while Pannonia again became part of the Pannonian March, both of which vassals to East Francia.^[21] The next year Bulgars made another attack but without further success, although the territory of Pannonia most probably lost its Eastern part to the First Bulgarian Empire.^[21]

After that, in 838 a local Slavic prince Ratimir emerged as the new ruler in Lower Pannonian regions, around rivers Drava and Sava. He probably ruled the Eastern areas of Pannonia and was a Bulgar's governor.^[23] To him fled Pribina, former prince of the Principality of Nitra expelled by Mojmir I of Moravia.^[25] In the same year Frankish count Radbod of the East March, deposed Ratimir and strengthened Frankish rule in Lower Pannonia.^[26] Ratimir fled the land, and the Franks instated Slavic prince Pribina as the new ruler of Lower Pannonia.^[27]^[23] Pribina (d. 861) was succeeded by his son, prince Kocel. During the rule of Pribina and Kocel, capital of the Principality of Lower Pannonia was Mosapurc (Mosapurc regia civitate),^[28] also known in Old-Slavonic as Blatnograd (modern Zalavár near Lake Balaton).^[29] The polity was a vassal principality of the Frankish Empire,^[30] or according to others,^[31] a frontier county (ラテン語: comitatus) of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom. It was initially led by a dux (Pribina) and later by a comes (Kocel) who was titled as "Count of the Slavs" (ラテン語: Comes de Sclauis).^[32] Their authority stretched towards the northwest up to the Rába river and Ptuj, and to the southeast up to the Baranya region and the Danube river.^[32] During the time of Kocel in Lower Pannonia was active Byzantine missionary Methodius,^[33] and to the same period is dated Pope John VIII's letter to uncertain dux Mutimir, commonly considered to be Mutimir of Serbia,^[a] about the formation of the Diocese of Pannonia with the seat in Sirmium and which archbishop at Kocel's request was Methodius (see also Archbishopric of Moravia).^[34]

The course of events by the end of the 9th century is unclear. Although still under the Frankish influence, a new threat was coming from Svatopluk I of Moravia.^[34] Braslav was the last dux of Lower Pannonia between at least 884 and 896.^[35] His territory initially spanned between the Drava and Sava, which he held under the overlordship of Arnulf of Carinthia. He participated in the Frankish–Moravian War, and in 895 or 896 Arnulf handed over Pannonia to him in order to secure the Frankish frontier against a new threat - the Hungarians who conquered Great Moravia.^[36]^[37] However, the Hungarians subsequently overran all of Pannonian Basin and continued into Kingdom of Italy.^[38]^[39]

Aftermath

Following the rise of the Principality of Hungary in the mid 890s, and especially after Battle of Pressburg (907),^[40] no further Slavic rulers were recorded in the regions of Lower Pannonia. The Hungarian conquest separated the West Slavs from the South Slavs which influenced the formation of new Slavic identities.^[41] Part of Moravian Slavs also fled to the Duchy of Croatia.^[38] It seems that the new border between Croatia and Hungary was North of the town of Sisak based on a recent archaeological finding of a "knez from Bojna" near Glina and that the diocese with the seat in Sisak was offered at the council of Split (928) to bishop Gregory of Nin, which could have only been possible if it was within the borders of the Kingdom of Croatia.^[23] In the mid 920s, Tomislav of Croatia expanded his rule to some Lower Pannonian territories, between Sava and Drava, adding them to the Croatian kingdom.^[42] Until the end of the 11th century its Western border was also contested by the Holy Roman Empire,^[40] and in the same time, Southeastern Pannonian regions (Syrmia) were contested between Hungarians and Bulgarians throughout the 10th century. There has remained a general uncertainty and dispute over the borders between the Croatian and Hungarian states in the 10th and 11th century, with Croatian historian Ferdo Šišić and his followers assuming Tomislav of Croatia had ruled most of the area inhabited by Croats, including southern Pannonian regions (Slavonia), while the Hungarian historians Gyula Kristó, Bálint Hóman and János Karácsonyi thought the area between Drava and Sava rivers belonged neither to Croatia nor to Hungary at the time, an opinion that Nada Klaić said she would not preclude, because the generic name "Slavonia" (lit. the land of the Slavs) may have implied so.^[43] However it was probably more connected and under influence of Croatia.^[40] With the continued growth of population, the formation of the church and administrative organization, including the founding of the diocese of Zagreb (1094), even after Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary it retained partial autonomy having governor titled as Ban of Slavonia.^[44]

Archaeology

The population's inhumation practices and rituals differed and mixed upon various cultural and ethnic influences.^[45] Even after the Frankish defeat of Avars and the process of Christianization some pagan practices and rituals did not change, like a cemetery in rows, feasting at the funeral or steppe burial rite with horse and equipment.^[46] Many new settlements were founded around ancient towns and one of them, Sisak, was even the seat of a Christian diocese.^[47] The native and mainly sedentary Slavic population assimilated Avars and was part of Avaro-Slavic Middle Podunavlje culture.^[48] Sedov considered that those Slavs were a mixture of Sclaveni of Prague-Korchak culture and mostly Antes of Penkovka and Ipotesti–Candesti culture with some Martinovka culture artifacts.^[49] They also assimilated later Hungarians whose elite burials are distinguished by Eastern artifacts, but eventually through the administrative system were linguistically assimilated by the Hungarians themselves.^[50] In the 10th century due to interaction with the Hungarians was formed so-called Bijelo Brdo culture located in the area of Podunavlje.^[51] According to the craniometrical measurements and archaeological findings early Croats probably did not initially settle in Lower Pannonia and their relationship with Pannonian Slavs was more political rather than ethnic.^[52] Others argue that the "Bijelo Brdo and Vukovar cemeteries can hardly be regarded evidence of a pre-Croatian Slavic population in northern Croatia" and they rather "represent a population fleeing the Magyars" during the 10th century".^[53] Those Slavs who migrated to the territory of present-day Lower and Upper Austria, first already during the time of Langobards as carriers of Prague-Korchak culture while majority from 7th and 8th century belonged to Avaro-Slavic culture, were assimilated by the Bavarians until the end of the 12th century.^[54]

In Croatian historiography

Contemporary Latin sources referred to the region as Pannonia inferior (Lower Pannonia),^[35]^[55] and its inhabitants in general terms of Slavs and Pannonians.^[14] Nevertheless a whole century under the foreign Frankish rule there didn't emerge a single gens with a specific identity for the population.^[38] In the 19th and 20th century Croatian historiography, the focus was usually placed on the polity between the rivers Drava and Sava. They referred to the polity as Pannonian Croatia (クロアチア語: Panonska Hrvatska), to describe this entity in a manner that emphasized its Croatian nature, mainly based on De Administrando Imperio (DAI) chapter 30.^[56] While DAI claims that a part of the Dalmatian Croats had moved into Pannonia in the 7th century and ruled over it, some modern analysis of sources indicate this was unlikely. Nevertheless, according to Croatian historian Hrvoje Gračanin, the traditions and language of the Slavs of southern Pannonia did not differ from those in Dalmatia, so during the periods when Frankish sources did not record a specific ruler of Lower Pannonia, it is possible that the Croatian dukes of Dalmatia, who were also Frankish vassals at the time, extended control over the region.^[56] The Croat name was not used in contemporary sources, until the late 9th century, rendering the name anachronistic before then,^[56]^[57] but many toponyms deriving from the Croatian ethnonym are very old and at least from the period between 11th and 12th century.^[58] While the term "Croat" was not used in sources about Pannonia, the rulers of the Trpimirović dynasty after Trpimir called themselves the rulers of the Croats and of the Slavs.^[59] Since "Pannonian Croatia" politically and ethnically never existed, being a historiographical and not historical term, it is abandoned in modern Croatian historiography which uses instead the term "Donja Panonija" (Lower Pannonia).^[60]^[61]^[62]

Rulers

The continuity of Slavic rulers in Lower Pannonia is unclear, and they were not consistently part of a ruling dynasty, unlike those in the north (House of Mojmir) and the south (House of Trpimir).

Monarch	Reign
Vojnomir	ca. 790–810
Ljudevit	ca. 810–823
Ratimir	ca. 829–838
Pribina	ca. 846–861
Kocel	ca. 861–876
Braslav	ca. 882–896

Annotations

^ There exist different interpretations about the identity of dux Mutimir as in the same time lived two or three personalities with the same or similar name: Mutimir of Serbia (c. 850–891), Muncimir of Croatia (c. 892–910) and possibly unknown Mutimir who ruled in the region of Syrmia as a vassal of the First Bulgarian Empire.^[34]

References

^ ^a ^b Bowlus 1995.
^ ^a ^b Goldberg 2006.
^ Luthar 2008.
^ Betti 2013.
^ ^a ^b Gračanin 2008, pp. 13–54.
^ Barker 1966, pp. 214–215.
^ Budak 2018, p. 61–63, 71–72.
^ Luthar 2008, pp. 94–95.
^ Filipec 2015, pp. 29–30, 337:To je vrlo teško dokazivo, ali nije isključeno da su Hrvati, uz druge neimenovane etničke skupine koje su migrirale pod Avarima bili značajnija etnička grupa i u tom području. U Karpatskoj kotlini spominju se, recimo, Du(d)lebi ... jedini imenom posvjedočeni etnik (uz opće nazive za Avare, Slavene, Romane, Germane ili Hune, kao i pokrajinska imena Noričane ili Panonce) u Panoniji 9. st. Također je zanimljivo da se oni, prema kasnijim povijesnim izvorima, spominju u južnoj Češkoj i u Prekomurju i uz dolinu rijeke Kerke, a još poslije nalazi se toponim južno od rijeke Drave (Dulepska u Koprivničko-križevačkoj županiji). Spominju se nadalje Hrvati u Karantaniji, odnosno Koruškoj (u 10. st.), Češkoj i Poljskoj (od 10. st.), Galiciji (u 12. st.) i nekadašnjoj rimskoj provinciji Dalmaciji učestalo od 9. st., ako izuzmemo De administrando imperio (dalje u tekstu DAI) u kojem su zabilježena zbivanja iz 7. st. iako je pisan u drugoj polovini 10. st., a u Panoniji (od 10 st.).29 Sve su to poprilično kasni izvori, ali se ipak prema njima, koliko-toliko, mogu rekonstruirati kretanje, grananje i naseljavanje hrvatskog etnika uz rub Karpatske kotline. Vrlo vjerojatno su Hrvati bili prisutni i u Posavlju i u Panoniji, no izvori ih ne spominju, a sačuvani toponimi najvećim su dijelom nastali u razvijenom srednjem vijeku (polako se pojavljuju poslije sredine 12., a ponajviše poslije sredine 13. st.), kad uopće počinje pisana povijest tog dijela zemlje ... Stanovništvo Panonije bilo je heterogenog sastava; uz Slavene („panonske Slavene“, Hrvate i Duljebe), Avare, Bugare i ostatke Romana treba računati s bavarskim doseljenicima. Slaveni nesumnjivo čine većinu.
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^ ^a ^b Goldberg 2006, pp. 49.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Budak 2018, p. 182.
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^ ^a ^b Luthar 2008, p. 105.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Budak 2018, p. 184.
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^ Kos, Milko (1960). Istorija Slovenaca od doseljenja do petnaestog veka. Prosveta. p. 129
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^ Heka, Ladislav (October 2008). “Croatian-Hungarian relations from the Middle Ages to the Compromise of 1868, with a special survey of the Slavonian issue” (クロアチア語). Scrinia Slavonica (Slavonski Brod: Croatian Historical Institute - Department of History of Slavonia, Srijem and Baranja) 8 (1): 155. ISSN 1332-4853 2012年5月10日閲覧。.
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^ Balcanoslavica. 5-7. (1977). p. 114. "The report refers to the uprising of Liudewitus, dux Pannoniae inferioris (Ljudevit Posavski), which was joined by the inhabitants of Carniola (Annales regni Francorum, ad a. 818 — 823)."
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^ Petković 2006, p. 241.
^ Fine 2005, pp. 28.
^ (クロアチア語) Panonska Hrvatska, (2020) 2020年12月30日閲覧, "Panonska Hrvatska, historiografski pojam za područje koje je u IX. i X. st. uglavnom bilo omeđeno rijekama Dravom, Savom, Kupom i Sutlom te Požeškim gorjem. U istom se značenju javlja pojam Posavska Hrvatska. Iako sustavnih istraživanja razvoja terminologije nema, čini se da starija hrvatska historiografija (I. Kukuljević Sakcinski, F. Rački, T. Smičiklas, V. Klaić) uglavnom ne rabi te nazive nego, primjerice, ime Doljnja Panonija i Posavina (T. Smičiklas, Poviest Hrvatska, II, 1882) ili Slovinska zemlja (V. Klaić, Povjest Hrvata od najstarijih vremena do svršetka XIX. stoljeća, I–VI, 1899–1922). Iznimka je Š. Ljubić (O Posavskoj Hrvatskoj i o zlatnih novcih njezina zadnjega kneza Serma (1018), u Radu JAZU, 1878). Vjerojatno je pojam Panonska Hrvatska uveo F. Šišić u svojem Pregledu povijesti hrvatskoga naroda (1916), u kojem piše: »U bivšoj Savskoj Panoniji … širila se posebna oblast u kojoj je sve do XVII. stoljeća prevladavalo slavensko ime, pa joj odatle i ime Sclavonia u latinskim spomenicima, a Slovinci, Slovinje u hrvatskim; mi ćemo je zvati Panonskom Hrvatskom.« Iako ga Šišić ne rabi u svojoj Povijesti Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara (1925), taj je pojam bio prihvaćen u historiografiji te se proširio napose zahvaljujući školskim udžbenicima i popularnim pregledima povijesti. Iako je u znanstvenom diskursu uglavnom napušten (primjerice: M. Barada, N. Klaić, T. Raukar, I. Goldstein, N. Budak), održao se, zajedno s terminom Posavska Hrvatska, u uporabi do danas (Hrvatski povijesni atlas Leksikografskoga zavoda Miroslav Krleža, 2003). Kao sinonim javlja se u literaturi i termin Sjeverna Hrvatska (T. Macan, Povijest hrvatskog naroda, 1992). Nijedan od spomenutih termina nije povijesni. U onodobnim se vrelima navedeno područje označavalo nazivima Pannonia, Pannonia inferior, regnum inter Savum et Dravum ili pak kao zemlja kneza koji je u određenom trenutku njome vladao."
^ Gračanin 2008, p. 74:Za kraj vrijedi istaknuti da Panonska odnosno Posavska Hrvatska nikada nije postojala niti kao etnička niti kao politička tvorba. Protiv toga se pojma ustrajno borila još Nada Klaić, naglašavajući da je riječ o historiografskom, a ne historijskom nazivu. Taj termin može se koristiti u geografskoj funkciji u obliku "panonska/posavska Hrvatska" (tada "posavski" nosi uže značenje od "panonskog"), dok za ranosrednjovjekovnu političku tvorbu u Međurječju valja rabiti sintagmu Donja Panonija odnosno Donjopanonska ili, eventualno, Savsko-dravska kneževina (regnum inter Dravum et Savum) kako je ova oblast prozvana u Fuldskim godišnjacima (pod godinom 884).
^ Filipec 2015, pp. 17, 29, 194:Smatrao sam da nije dobro rabiti naziv Panonska ili Posavska Hrvatska iako je on bio prisutan u povijesnim raspravama od početka 20. st. jer je to historiografski pojam, ne odražava pravo stanje na terenu i nema povijesno uporište. Panonska odnosno Posavska ili Sjeverna Hrvatska ne postoji u onom smislu kako je to definirano u različitim raspravama, a pogotovo nije postojala u 9. st. ... Teza dosta dugo održana u našoj i svjetskoj povijesnoj literaturi, da se na sjeveru današnje Hrvatske i susjednih država nalazila Panonska Hrvatska, nema uporišta u izvorima ... Otuda u hrvatskoj historiografiji i pojam Panonska Hrvatska koji je doživio kritiku posebno posljednjih nekoliko desetljeća.535