Martin-Löf randomness has since been shown to admit many equivalent characterizations — in terms of compression, randomness tests, and gambling — that bear little outward resemblance to the original definition, but each of which satisfies our intuitive notion of properties that random sequences ought to have: random sequences should be incompressible, they should pass statistical tests for randomness, and it should be impossible to make money betting on them. The existence of these multiple definitions of Martin-Löf randomness, and the stability of these definitions under different models of computation, give evidence that Martin-Löf randomness is a fundamental property of mathematics and not an accident of Martin-Löf's particular model. The thesis that the definition of Martin-Löf randomness "correctly" captures the intuitive notion of randomness has been called the "Martin-Löf–Chaitin Thesis"; it is somewhat similar to the Church–Turing thesis.[10]
Following Martin-Löf's work, algorithmic information theory defines a random string as one that cannot be produced from any computer program that is shorter than the string (Chaitin–Kolmogorov randomness); i.e. a string whose Kolmogorov complexity is at least the length of the string. This is a different meaning from the usage of the term in statistics. Whereas statistical randomness refers to the process that produces the string (e.g. flipping a coin to produce each bit will randomly produce a string), algorithmic randomness refers to the string itself. Algorithmic information theory separates random from nonrandom strings in a way that is relatively invariant to the model of computation being used.
An algorithmically random sequence is an infinite sequence of characters, all of whose prefixes (except possibly a finite number of exceptions) are strings that are "close to" algorithmically random (their length is within a constant of their Kolmogorov complexity).
マルティン=レーフは、統計理論への革新的なアプローチを開発した。彼の論文「乱数表について("On Tables of Random Numbers)」において、アンドレイ・コルモゴロフは、無限列の極限特性に関する頻度確率(frequency probability)概念は、ただ有限個の標本についてだけ考慮する統計学の基礎にはならないという意見を述べた[16]。統計学におけるマルティン=レーフの仕事の多くは、有限標本ベースの統計学の基盤を提供している。
Per Martin-Löf began bird watching in his youth and remains an enthusiastic bird-watcher.[22] As a teenager, he published an article on estimating the mortality rates of birds, using data from bird ringing, in a Swedish zoological journal: This paper was soon cited in leading international journals, and this paper continues to be cited.[7][23]
In the biology and statistics of birds, there are several problems of missing data. Martin-Löf's first paper discussed the problem of estimating the mortality rates of the Dunlin species, using capture-recapture methods. A second problem of missing data arises with studying the sex of birds. The problem of determining the biological sex of a bird, which is extremely difficult for humans, is one of the first examples in Martin-Löf's lectures on statistical models.
Martin-Löf wrote a licenciate thesis on probability on algebraic structures, particularly semigroups, a research program led by Ulf Grenander at Stockholm University.[24][25][26]
Martin-Löf developed innovative approaches to statistical theory. In his paper "On Tables of Random Numbers", Kolmogorov observed that the frequency probability notion of the limiting properties of infinite sequences failed to provide a foundation for statistics, which considers only finite samples.[16] Much of Martin-Löf's work in statistics was to provide a finite-sample foundation for statistics.
In the 1970s, Per Martin-Löf made important contributions to statistical theory and inspired further research, especially by Scandinavian statisticians including Rolf Sundberg, Thomas Höglund, and Steffan Lauritzen. In this work, Martin-Löf's previous research on probability measures on semigroups led to a notion of "repetitive structure" and a novel treatment of sufficient statistics, in which one-parameter exponential families were characterized. He provided a category-theoretic approach to nested statistical models, using finite-sample principles. Before (and after) Martin-Löf, such nested models have often been tested using chi-square hypothesis tests, whose justifications are only asymptotic (and so irrelevant to real problems, which always have finite samples).[16]
Expectation maximization method for exponential families
From 1968 to '69 he worked as an Assistant Professor at the University of Chicago where he met William Alvin Howard with whom he discussed issues related to the Curry–Howard correspondence. Martin-Löf's first draft article on type theory dates back to 1971. This impredicative theory generalized Girard'sSystem F. However, this system turned out to be inconsistent due to Girard's paradox which was discovered by Girard when studying System U, an inconsistent extension of System F. This experience led Per Martin-Löf to develop the philosophical foundations of type theory, his meaning explanation, a form of proof-theoretic semantics, which justifies predicative type theory as presented in his 1984 Bibliopolis book, and extended in a number of increasingly philosophical texts, such as his influential On the Meanings of the Logical Constants and the Justifications of the Logical Laws.
The 1984 type theory was extensional while the type theory presented in the book by Nordström et al. in 1990, which was heavily influenced by his later ideas, intensional, and more amenable to being implemented on a computer.
^S. M. Taylor (1966). “Recent Quantitative Work on British Bird Populations. A Review”. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series D16 (=No. 2): 119–170. JSTOR2986734.
^Martin-Löf, P. The continuity theorem on a locally compact group. Teor. Verojatnost. i Primenen. 10 1965 367–371.
^Martin-Löf, Per Probability theory on discrete semigroups. Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie und Verw. Gebiete 4 1965 78–102
^Nitis Mukhopadhyay. A Conversation with Ulf Grenander. Statist. Sci. Volume 21, Number 3 (2006), 404–426.
^Rolf Sundberg. 1971. Maximum likelihood theory and applications for distributions generated when observing a function of an exponential family variable. Dissertation, Institute for Mathematical Statistics, Stockholm University.
^Anders Martin-Löf. 1963. "Utvärdering av livslängder i subnanosekundsområdet" ("Evaluation of lifetimes in time-lengths below one nanosecond"). ("Sundberg formula")
^Per Martin-Löf. 1966. Statistics from the point of view of statistical mechanics. Lecture notes, Mathematical Institute, Aarhus University. ("Sundberg formula" credited to Anders Martin-Löf).
^Per Martin-Löf. 1970. Statistika Modeller (Statistical Models): Anteckningar fran seminarier läsåret 1969–1970 (Notes from seminars in the academic year 1969–1970), with the assistance of Rolf Sundberg. Stockholm University. ("Sundberg formula")
^S. M. Taylor (1966). “Recent Quantitative Work on British Bird Populations. A Review”. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series D16 (=No. 2): 119–170. JSTOR2986734.
^Martin-Löf, P. The continuity theorem on a locally compact group. Teor. Verojatnost. i Primenen. 10 1965 367–371.
^Martin-Löf, Per Probability theory on discrete semigroups. Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie und Verw. Gebiete 4 1965 78–102
^Nitis Mukhopadhyay. A Conversation with Ulf Grenander. Statist. Sci. Volume 21, Number 3 (2006), 404–426.
^Rolf Sundberg. 1971. Maximum likelihood theory and applications for distributions generated when observing a function of an exponential family variable. Dissertation, Institute for Mathematical Statistics, Stockholm University.
^Anders Martin-Löf. 1963. "Utvärdering av livslängder i subnanosekundsområdet" ("Evaluation of lifetimes in time-lengths below one nanosecond"). ("Sundberg formula")
^Per Martin-Löf. 1966. Statistics from the point of view of statistical mechanics. Lecture notes, Mathematical Institute, Aarhus University. ("Sundberg formula" credited to Anders Martin-Löf).
^Per Martin-Löf. 1970. Statistika Modeller (Statistical Models): Anteckningar fran seminarier läsåret 1969–1970 (Notes from seminars in the academic year 1969–1970), with the assistance of Rolf Sundberg. Stockholm University. ("Sundberg formula")
Per Martin-Löf (1961). “Mortality rate calculations on ringed birds with special reference to the Dunlin Calidris alpina”. Arkiv för Zoologi (Zoology Files), Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademien (The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences) Serie 2Band 13 (21).
Anders Martin-Löf (1963), Utvärdering av livslängder i subnanosekundsområdet ("Evaluation of lifetimes in time-lengths below one nanosecond") ("Sundberg formula", according to Sundberg 1971)
Per Martin-Löf (1966), “Statistics from the point of view of statistical mechanics”, Lecture notes, Mathematical Institute, Aarhus University ("Sundberg formula" credited to Anders Martin-Löf, according to Sundberg 1971)
Per Martin-Löf. 1970. Statistika Modeller (Statistical Models): Anteckningar fran seminarier läsåret 1969–1970 (Notes from seminars in the academic year 1969–1970), with the assistance of Rolf Sundberg. Stockholm University.
Martin-Löf, P. "Exact tests, confidence regions and estimates", with a discussion by A. W. F. Edwards, G. A. Barnard, D. A. Sprott, O. Barndorff-Nielsen, D. Basu and G. Rasch. Proceedings of Conference on Foundational Questions in Statistical Inference (Aarhus, 1973), pp. 121–138. Memoirs, No. 1, Dept. Theoret. Statist., Inst. Math., Univ. Aarhus, Aarhus, 1974.
Martin-Löf, P. Repetitive structures and the relation between canonical and microcanonical distributions in statistics and statistical mechanics. With a discussion by D. R. Cox and G. Rasch and a reply by the author. Proceedings of Conference on Foundational Questions in Statistical Inference (Aarhus, 1973), pp. 271–294. Memoirs, No. 1, Dept. Theoret. Statist., Inst. Math., Univ. Aarhus, Aarhus, 1974.
Martin-Löf, P. The notion of redundancy and its use as a quantitative measure of the deviation between a statistical hypothesis and a set of observational data. With a discussion by F. Abildgård, A. P. Dempster, D. Basu, D. R. Cox, A. W. F. Edwards, D. A. Sprott, George A. Barnard, O. Barndorff-Nielsen, J. D. Kalbfleisch and G. Rasch and a reply by the author. Proceedings of Conference on Foundational Questions in Statistical Inference (Aarhus, 1973), pp. 1–42. Memoirs, No. 1, Dept. Theoret. Statist., Inst. Math., Univ. Aarhus, Aarhus, 1974.
Per Martin-Löf (1974), “The notion of redundancy and its use as a quantitative measure of the discrepancy between a statistical hypothesis and a set of observational data”, Scand. J. Statist. 11: 3-18
Sverdrup, Erling (1975), “Tests without power”, Scand. J. Statist. 23: 158–160
Martin-Löf, Per Reply to Erling Sverdrup's polemical article: ``Tests without power (Scand. J. Statist. 2 (1975), no. 3, 158–160). Scand. J. Statist. 2 (1975), no. 3, 161–165.
Sverdrup, Erling. A rejoinder to: ``Tests without power (Scand. J. Statist. 2 (1975), 161—165) by P. Martin-Löf. Scand. J. Statist. 4 (1977), no. 3, 136—138.
Per Martin-Löf (1977), “Exact tests, confidence regions and estimates. Foundations of probability and statistics. II”, Synthese36 (no. 2): 195-206
Rolf Sundberg (1971), “Maximum likelihood theory and applications for distributions generated when observing a function of an exponential family variable”, Dissertation, Institute for Mathematical Statistics (Stockholm University)
Rolf Sundberg (1974), “Maximum likelihood theory for incomplete data from an exponential family”, Scand. J. Statist1 (no.2): 49-58
Rolf Sundberg (1976), “An iterative method for solution of the likelihood equations for incomplete data from exponential families”, Comm. Statist.—Simulation Comput. B5 (no.1): 55—64
Rolf Sundberg (1975), “Some results about decomposable (or Markov-type) models for multidimensional contingency tables: distribution of marginals and partitioning of tests”, Scand. J. Statist2 (no. 2): 71—79
Thomas Höglund (1974), “The exact estimate — a method of statistical estimation”, Z. Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie und Verw. Gebiete29: 257—271
Steffen L. Lauritzen (1988), “Extremal families and systems of sufficient statistics”, Lecture Notes in Statistics (Springer-Verlag, New York) 49: xvi+268 pp, ISBN0-387-96872-5
数学、論理学、そして計算機科学の基礎付け
Per Martin-Löf. A theory of types. Preprint, Stockholm University, 1971.
Per Martin-Löf. An intuitionistic theory of types. In G. Sambin and J. Smith, editors, Twenty-Five Years of Constructive Type Theory. Oxford University Press, 1998. Reprinted version of an unpublished report from 1972.
Per Martin-Löf. An intuitionistic theory of types: Predicative part. In H. E. Rose and J. C. Shepherdson, editors, Logic Colloquium ‘73, pages 73–118. North Holland, 1975.
Per Martin-Löf. Intuitionistic type theory. (Notes by Giovanni Sambin of a series of lectures given in Padua, June 1980). Napoli, Bibliopolis, 1984.
Per Martin-Löf. Philosophical implications of type theory, Unpublished notes, 1987?
Per Martin-Löf. Substitution calculus, 1992. Notes from a lecture given in Göteborg.
Bengt Nordström, Kent Petersson, and Jan M. Smith. Programming in Martin-Löf's Type Theory. Oxford University Press, 1990. (The book is out of print, but a free version has been made available.)