A treatise, A Book on the Excellence of the Bow & Arrow of c. 1500 details the practices and techniques of archery among the Arabs of that time.[69]
An anonymous book written in Picardy, France, in the late 15th century details how archery in medieval Europe was practiced. The book was titled Le Fachon de tirer l'arc a main. It describes the means of how a yew bow could be made, the kinds of wood that could be used, how to shoot it, string it and different kind of arrows. According to the writer, its purpose is for posterity, possibly due to the rise of the gun.[70]
In Mali, the footmen were dominated by archers. Three archers to one spearman was the general ratio of Malian formations in the 16th century. The archers generally opened battle, softening up the enemy for cavalry charges or the advance of the spearmen.[71]
Decline of archery
Panels depicting Archery in England from Joseph Strutt's 1801 book, The sports and pastimes of the people of England from the earliest period. The date of the top image is unknown; the middle image is from 1496 and the bottom panel is circa fourteenth century.Archery game outside the town. Jan Lamsvelt in Van Heemskerk: Batavische Arcadia, 1708.
The advent of firearms eventually rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the relative neglect of archery.
In Ireland, Geoffrey Keating (c. 1569 – c. 1644) mentions archery as having been practiced "down to a recent period within our own memory."[73]
Early firearms were inferior in rate of fire (a Tudor English author expects eight shots from the English longbow in the time needed for a "ready shooter" to give five from the musket),[74] and François Bernier reports that well-trained mounted archers at the Battle of Samugarh in 1658 were "shooting six times before a musketeer can fire twice".[75] Firearms were also very susceptible to wet weather. However, they had a longer effective range (up to 200 yards for the longbow, up to 600 yards for the musket),[74][76] greater penetration,[77] were extremely powerful compared to any previous man-portable missile weapon (16th century arquebuses and muskets had 1,300 to 3,000 joules per shot depending on size and powder load, as compared to 80–100 joules for a typical longbow arrow or 150–200 joules for a crossbow bolt),[78] and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also penetrated steel armour without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. The Battle of Cerignola in 1503 was won by Spain mainly by the use of matchlock firearms, marking the first time a major battle in Europe was won through the use of firearms.
The last regular unit armed with bows was the Archers' Company of the Honourable Artillery Company, ironically a part of the oldest regular unit in England to be armed with gunpowder weapons. The last recorded use of bows in battle in England seems to have been a skirmish at Bridgnorth; in October 1642, during the English Civil War, an impromptu militia, armed with bows, was effective against un-armoured musketmen.[79] The last use of the bow in battle in Britain is said to have occurred at the Battle of Tippermuir in Scotland on 1 September 1644, when James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose's Royalist highlanders defeated an army of Scottish Covenanters.[80] Among Montrose's army were bowmen.[80]
Archery continued in some areas that were subject to limitations on the ownership of arms, such as the Scottish Highlands during the repression that followed the decline of the Jacobite cause, and the Cherokees after the Trail of Tears. The Tokugawa shogunate severely limited the import and manufacture of guns, and encouraged traditional martial skills among the samurai; towards the end of the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877, some rebels fell back on the use of bows and arrows. Archery remained an important part of the military examinations until 1894 in Korea and 1904 in China.
Within the steppe of Eurasia, archery continued to play an important part in warfare, although now restricted to mounted archery. The Ottoman Empire still fielded auxiliary cavalry which was noted for its use of bows from horseback. This practice was continued by the Ottoman subject nations, despite the Empire itself being a proponent of early firearms. The practice declined after the Crimean Khanate was absorbed by Russia; however mounted archers remained in the Ottoman order of battle until the post-1826 reforms to the Ottoman Army. The art of traditional archery remained in minority use for sport and for hunting in Turkey up until the 1920s, but the knowledge of constructing composite bows fell out of use with the death of the last bowyer in the 1930s. The rest of the Middle East also lost the continuity of its archery tradition at this time.
An exception to this trend was the Comanche culture of North America, where mounted archery remained competitive with muzzle-loading guns. "After ... about 1800, most Comanches began to discard muskets and pistols and to rely on their older weapons."[81] Repeating firearms, however, were superior in turn, and the Comanches adopted them when they could. Bows remained effective hunting weapons for skilled horse archers, used to some extent by all Native Americans on the Great Plains to hunt buffalo as long as there were buffalo to hunt. The last Comanche hunt was in 1878, and it failed for lack of buffalo, not lack of appropriate weapons.[82]
Ongoing use of bows and arrows was maintained in isolated cultures with little or no contact with the outside world. The use of traditional archery in some African conflicts has been reported in the 21st century, and the Sentinelese still use bows as part of a lifestyle scarcely touched by outside contact. A remote group in Brazil, recently photographed from the air, aimed bows at the aeroplane.[83] Bows and arrows saw considerable use in the 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis.
A print of the 1822 meeting of the "Royal British Bowmen" archery club.
The British initiated a major revival of archery as an upper-class pursuit from about 1780–1840.[84]
Early recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Kilwinning Papingo, established in 1688. The latter held competitions in which the archers had to dislodge a wooden parrot from the top of an abbey tower. The Company of Scottish Archers was formed in 1676 and is one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. It remained a small and scattered pastime, however, until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales.
Fashionable female archers, 1799
Archery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21 gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were "the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside" and thus came to play an important role in the social networks of local elites. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with females. Young women could not only compete in the contests but retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for introductions, flirtation and romance.[84] It was often consciously styled in the manner of a Medievaltournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor. General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle classbourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status.
After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, Ivanhoe that depicted the heroic character Locksley winning an archery tournament.[85]
A modern sport
The 1840s saw the first attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand National Archery Society meeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardised as the 'York Round' – a series of shoots at 60, 80, and 100 yards. Horace A. Ford helped to improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856.
Picture of Pope taken while grizzly hunting at Yellowstone
Towards the end of the 19th century, the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics.
In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911.[86][87] His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them.[88][89] The Pope and Young Club, founded in 1961 and named in honor of Pope and his friend, Arthur Young, became one of North America's leading bowhunting and conservation organizations. Founded as a nonprofit scientific organization, the club was patterned after the prestigious Boone and Crockett Club and advocated responsible bowhunting by promoting quality, fair chase hunting, and sound conservation practices.
In Korea, the transformation of archery to a healthy pastime was led by Emperor Gojong, and is the basis of a popular modern sport. The Japanese continue to make and use their unique traditional equipment. Among the Cherokees, popular use of their traditional longbows never died out.[90]
In China, at the beginning of the 21st century, there has been revival in interest among craftsmen looking to construct bows and arrows, as well as in practicing technique in the traditional Chinese style.[91][92]
In modern times, mounted archery continues to be practiced as a popular competitive sport in modern Hungary and in some Asian countries but it is not recognized as an international competition.[93] Archery is the national sport of the Kingdom of Bhutan.[94]
From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts.[95] They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Further reading). Modern game archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer.[96]
^ abLombard, Marlize (October 2020). “The tip cross-sectional areas of poisoned bone arrowheads from southern Africa”. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports33: 102477. Bibcode: 2020JArSR..33j2477L. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102477.
^Backwell, Lucinda; d'Errico, Francesco; Wadley, Lyn (June 2008). “Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa”. Journal of Archaeological Science35 (6): 1566–1580. Bibcode: 2008JArSc..35.1566B. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006.
^Lombard, Marlize; Phillipson, Laurel (2010). “Indications of bow and stone-tipped arrow use 64,000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa”. Antiquity84 (325): 635–648. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00100134.
^Lombard, Marlize (August 2011). “Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60 ka: further use-trace evidence from Sibudu, Kwa-Zulu-Natal, South Africa”. Journal of Archaeological Science38 (8): 1918–1930. Bibcode: 2011JArSc..38.1918L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.001.
^Backwell, Lucinda; Bradfield, Justin; Carlson, Kristian J.; Jashashvili, Tea; Wadley, Lyn; d'Errico, Francesco (April 2018). “The antiquity of bow-and-arrow technology: evidence from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu Cave”. Antiquity92 (362): 289–303. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.11. hdl:11336/81248.
^Rosendahl, Gaëlle; Beinhauer, Karl-Wilhelm; Löscher, Manfred; Kreipl, Kurt; Walter, Rudolf; Rosendahl, Wilfried (2006). “Le plus vieil arc du monde? Une pièce intéressante en provenance de Mannheim, Allemagne” (fr, en). L'Anthropologie110 (3): 371–382. doi:10.1016/j.anthro.2006.06.008.
^Chauviere, François-Xavier, ed (2009) (フランス語). La grotte du Bichon, un site préhistorique des montagnes neuchâteloises [The Bichon cave, a prehistoric site in the Neuchâtel mountains]. Archéologie neuchâteloise. 42. Neuchâtel: Office et musée cantonal d'archéologie. ISBN978-2-940347-41-4
^Grayson, Charles E.; French, Mary & O'Brien, Michael J. (2007). Traditional Archery from Six Continents: The Charles E. Grayson Collection. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press. p. 1. ISBN978-0-8262-1751-6
^Traunecker, Claude (2001) [1992]. The Gods of Egypt. Translated from the French by David Lorton (1st English ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 29. ISBN978-0-80143-834-9
^ abDrews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C.. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 119. ISBN978-0-69104-811-6
^Delrue, Parsival (2007). “Trilobate Arrowheads at Ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm Al-Qaiwain)”. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy18 (2): 239–250. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00281.x. "A trilobate arrowhead can be defined as an arrowhead that has three wings or blades that are usually placed at equal angles (i.e. c. 120°) around the imaginary longitudinal axis extending from the centre of the socket or tang. Since this type of arrowhead is rare in southeastern Arabia, we must investigate its origin and the reasons behind its presence at ed-Dur."
^Drews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C.. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 125. ISBN978-0-69104-811-6. "With the bow let us win cows, with the bow let us win the contest and violent battles with the bow. The bow ruins the enemy's pleasure; with the bow let us conquer all corners of the world."
^Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 271. ISBN978-9-00412-556-8
^Kirk, Geoffrey (1993). The Iliad: A Commentary. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 136
^The Ashvayanas living on river Guraeus (modern river Panjkora), which are the Gauri of Mahabharata, were also known as Gorys or Guraios, modern Ghori or Gori, a wide spread tribe, branches of which are still to be found on the Panjkora and on both sides of the Kabul at the point of its confluence with Landai. (See: Singh, Fauja (1997). Joshi, L. M.. ed. History of The Punjab, Volume I. Patiala: Publication Bureau Punjabi University. p. 227. ISBN8-1738-0336-6) The clan name Gore or Gaure is also found among the modern Kamboj people of Punjab and it is stated that the Punjab Kamboj Gaure/Gore came from the Kunar valley to Punjab at some point in time in the past. (See: Singh Dardi, Kirpal (1979). These Kamboja People. p. 122 & Singh Dardi, Kirpal (2005). Kambojas Through the Ages. p. 131)
^ ab“Six Arts of Ancient China”. Folk Archery Federation of the People's Republic of China (2010年8月8日). 2025年6月13日閲覧。
^ abSelby, Stephen (2000). Chinese Archery. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN962-209-501-1
^Needham, Joseph, ed (1986). Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Military Technology, Missiles and Sieges, Volume 5, Part 6. Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–128
^Selby, Stephen (Winter 2010). “The Bows of China”. Journal of Chinese Martial Studies (Hong Kong: Three-In-One Press) (2).
^Grayson (2004年). “Korean Archery Equipment”. University of Missouri Museum of Anthropology. 2016年6月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2025年6月14日閲覧。 “During the Choson period (1392–1910), Korea adopted a military-service examination system from China that included a focus on archery skills and that contributed to the development of Korean archery as a practical martial art.”
^Groupe d'études et de recherches souterraines du Liban [Lebanon Underground Study and Research Group] (1994) (フランス語). Momies du Liban: Rapport préliminaire sur la découverte archaéologique de 'Asi-al-Hadat (XIIIe siècle) [Mummies from Lebanon: Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Discovery of 'Asi-al-Hadat (13th Century)]. Paris: Édifra. ISBN978-2-90407-072-3
^Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1932) (アラビア語). كتاب عنية الطلاب في معرفة الرمي بالنشاب [A book about students' knowledge of archery]. Cairo. OCLC643468400
^Boudot-Lamotte, A. (1972). “J. D. Latham et Lt. Cdr. W. F. Paterson, Saracen Archery, An English version and exposition of a Mameluke work on Archery (ca. A.D. 1368), with Introduction, Glossary, and Illustrations, London (The Holland Press) 1970, XL + 219 pp”. Arabica19 (1): 98–99. doi:10.1163/157005872X00203.
^Jallon, Adnan D. (1980). 'Kitāb f maʿrifat ʿilm ramy al-sihām', a treatise on archery by Husayn b. ʿAbd al-Rahman b. Muhammad b. Muhammad b. ʿAbdallah al-Yunini AH 647(?)–724, AH 1249-50(?)–1324 : A critical edition of the Arabic text together with a study of the work in English (Thesis). University of Manchester. OCLC499854155.
^Ki-Zerbo, Joseph (1978) (フランス語). Histoire de l'Afrique noire: d'hier à demain [History of Black Africa: From Yesterday to Tomorrow]. Paris: Hatier. pp. 37–133. ISBN978-2-21804-176-1
^Asano Yukinaga, 1598 AD, letter to his father, quoted in Turnbull, S.R. (1977). The Samurai: A Military History. London, UK: Osprey. ISBN0-85045-097-7
^As attributed to Bernier by Kolff, Dirk H. A. (2002) [1990]. Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450–1850. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications No. 43. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-52152-305-9
^Duvernay, Thomas A. & Duvernay, Nicholas Y. (2007). Korean Traditional Archery. Pohang, South Korea: Handong Global University
^Williams, Alan (2003). The Knight and the Blast Furnace: A History of the Metallurgy of Armour in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. History of Warfare. 12. Leiden: Brill. pp. 922 & 945. ISBN978-9-00412-498-1
^Fehrenbach, T.R. (2007). Comanches, the history of a people. London, UK: Vintage Books. p. 125. ISBN978-0-09-952055-9 First published in the USA by Alfred Knopf, 1974.
^Fehrenbach, T.R. (2007). Comanches, the history of a people. London, UK: Vintage Books. p. 553. ISBN978-0-09-952055-9 First published in the USA by Alfred Knopf, 1974.
^Pope, Saxton (1925). Hunting with the Bow and Arrow. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons
^Pope, Saxton (1926). Adventurous Bowmen: field notes on African archery. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons
^Herrin, Al (November 1989). Cherokee Bows and Arrows: How to Make and Shoot Primitive Bows and Arrows. Tahlequah, Oklahoma: White Bear Publishing. ISBN978-0-96236-013-8
^Hickman, C. N.; Nagler, Forrest; Klopsteg, Paul E. (1947). Archery: The Technical Side. A compilation of scientific and technical articles on theory, construction, use and performance of bows and arrows, reprinted from journals of science and of archery. National Field Archery Association
Crombie, Laura (2016). Archery and Crossbow Guilds in Medieval Flanders. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer
参考文献
Alofs, Eduard (2014). “Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia I: Continuity and Change in Middle Eastern Warfare, c. ce 550–1350–What Happened to the Horse Archer?”. War in History21 (4): 423–444. doi:10.1177/0968344513517664.
Alofs, Eduard (2015). “Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia II: The Iranian Tradition–The Armoured Horse Archer in the Middle East, c. ce 550–1350”. War in History22 (1): 4–27. doi:10.1177/0968344513518333.
Junkmanns, Jürgen; Klügl, Johanna; Schoch, Werner H.; Di Pietro, Giovanna & Hafner, Albert (December 2019). “Neolithic and Bronze Age archery equipment from alpine ice-patches: A review on components, construction techniques and functionality”. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology (21): 283–314. doi:10.12766/jna.2019.10.
Laubin, Reginald (1980). American Indian Archery. University of Oklahoma Press
Roth, Erik (2011). With a Bended Bow: Archery in Mediaeval and Renaissance Europe. The History Press
Gwang Ok; Seokgyu Choi & Hee Surk Jeong (2010). “'The Disturbance of War': The Ancient Origin and Development of Korean Archery”. International Journal of the History of Sport27 (3): 523–536. doi:10.1080/09523360903556824.
Selby, Stephen (2000). Chinese Archery. Hong Kong University Press
Wadge, Richard (2012). Archery in Medieval England: Who Were the Bowmen of Crecy?. The History Press
The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 1. The Lyons Press. (1992). ISBN1-58574-085-3
The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 2. The Lyons Press. (1992). ISBN1-58574-086-1
The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 3. The Lyons Press. (1994). ISBN1-58574-087-X
The Traditional Bowyers Bible, Volume 4. The Lyons Press. (2008). ISBN978-0-9645741-6-8
Alofs, Eduard (2014). “Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia I: Continuity and Change in Middle Eastern Warfare, c. ce 550–1350–What Happened to the Horse Archer?”. War in History21 (4): 423–444. doi:10.1177/0968344513517664.
Alofs, Eduard (2015). “Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia II: The Iranian Tradition–The Armoured Horse Archer in the Middle East, c. ce 550–1350”. War in History22 (1): 4–27. doi:10.1177/0968344513518333.
Junkmanns, Jürgen; Klügl, Johanna; Schoch, Werner H.; Di Pietro, Giovanna & Hafner, Albert (December 2019). “Neolithic and Bronze Age archery equipment from alpine ice-patches: A review on components, construction techniques and functionality”. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology (21): 283–314. doi:10.12766/jna.2019.10.
Laubin, Reginald (1980). American Indian Archery. University of Oklahoma Press
Roth, Erik (2011). With a Bended Bow: Archery in Mediaeval and Renaissance Europe. The History Press
Gwang Ok; Seokgyu Choi & Hee Surk Jeong (2010). “'The Disturbance of War': The Ancient Origin and Development of Korean Archery”. International Journal of the History of Sport27 (3): 523–536. doi:10.1080/09523360903556824.
Selby, Stephen (2000). Chinese Archery. Hong Kong University Press