19世紀の思想家ハーバート・スペンサーは社会組織に対して「super-organic」という用語を生み出したが[4]、これは明らかに「organic(組織)」と「social(社会)」を対比させたもので、個体群のアイデンティティの話ではない。スペンサーは社会有機体説(英語版)として社会の全体論的性質を探究しつつ、社会と有機体の挙動に違いを認識していた[5]。スペンサーにとって「super-organic」とは、有機体、すなわち人間同士の相互作用の持つ創発的属性を意味した。そして D. C. Phillips が指摘したように「創発主義と還元主義には違い」がある[6]。
^Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world. Boston: Addison-Wesley. pp. 98. ISBN0-201-48340-8
^Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, James Lovelock, Oxford University Press, 1979
^Kelly, Kevin (1994). Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world. Boston: Addison-Wesley. pp. 251. ISBN0-201-48340-8
If Col. Thorpe [of the US DARPA] has his way, the four divisions of the US military and hundreds of industrial subcontractors will become a single interconnected superorganism. The immediate step to this world of distributed intelligence is an engineering protocol developed by a consortium of defense simulation centers in Orlando Florida ...
^『総合哲学体系』の中の「社会学原論」の第一章の題名が「Super-organic Evolution」である。The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1, Part 1. "The Data of Sociology", Herbert Spencer, 1876
^The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1, Part 2, Chapter II, "A Society Is an Organism" (sections 222 and 223), Herbert Spencer, 1876
^Holistic Thought in Social Science, D. C. Phillips, Stanford University Press, 1976, p. 123
^Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, Carl Menger, Louis Schneider (translator), New York University Press, 1985
^The Political Philosophy of Herbert Spencer, Tim S. Gray, 1996, p. 211
^Patterns of Culture, Ruth Benedict, Houghton Mifflin, 1934, p. 231
Jürgen Tautz, Helga R. Heilmann: The Buzz about Bees - Biology of a Superorganism, 284 pages : Springer-Verlag 2008. ISBN 978-3-540-78727-3
Bert Hölldobler, E.O. Wilson: "The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies", 576 pages : W.W. Norton, 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06704-0