基於廣義相對論度量建立星係自轉模型的嘗試,顯示銀河系 、 NGC 3031 、 NGC 3198和NGC 7331的自轉曲線與可見物質的質量密度分佈一致[13],以及其他類似的工作[14], 一直存在爭議。[15]對於一個由軸對稱、靜止自轉的塵埃組成的系統,在低能極限下,愛因斯坦方程式的解作為星系的玩具模型,表現出非牛頓特徵,例如平坦的自轉曲線。這些旋轉系統是純相對論對象,因為它們沒有牛頓類似物。[16]
This was the first detailed study of orbital rotation in galaxies.
V. Rubin, W. K. Ford, Jr, N. Thonnard. Rotational Properties of 21 Sc Galaxies with a Large Range of Luminosities and Radii from NGC 4605 (R=4kpc) to UGC 2885 (R=122kpc). Astrophysical Journal. 1980, 238: 471.
Observations of a set of spiral galaxies gave convincing evidence that orbital velocities of stars in galaxies were unexpectedly high at large distances from the nucleus. This paper was influential in convincing astronomers that most of the matter in the universe is dark, and much of it is clumped about galaxies.
^For an extensive discussion of the data and its fit to MOND see Milgrom, M. The MOND Paradigm. 2007. arXiv:0801.3133 [astro-ph].
^L. Volders. Neutral hydrogen in M 33 and M 101. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands: 323–334.
^A. Bosma, "The distribution and kinematics of neutral hydrogen in spiral galaxies of various morphological types", PhD Thesis, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, 1978, available online at the Nasa Extragalactic Database (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
^W. J. G. de Blok, A. Bosma. High-resolution rotation curves of low surface brightness galaxies. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 2002, 385: 816–846. available online at the Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System
^J. D. Bekenstein. Relativistic gravitation theory for the modified Newtonian dynamics paradigm. Physical Review D. 2004, 70: 083509.
^J. W. Moffat. Scalar tensor vector gravity theory. Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2006, 3: 4.
^Astesiano, Davide; Ruggiero, Matteo Luca. Low-energy limit of stationary and axisymmetric solutions in general relativity. Physical Review D. 21 May 2025, 111 (10). arXiv:2412.08598. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.111.104066.