The 27-year war can be divided roughly into three periods of major fighting – 1975–91, 1992–94, and 1998 to 2002 – broken up by fragile periods of peace. By the time the MPLA achieved victory in 2002, more than 500,000 people had died and over one million had been internally displaced. The war devastated Angola's infrastructure, and severely damaged the nation's public administration, economic enterprises, and religious institutions.[要出典]
Angelo Del Boca, The Ethiopian War 1935–1941 (1965), cites a 1945 memorandum from Ethiopia to the Conference of Prime Ministers, which tallies 760,300 natives dead; of them: battle deaths: 275,000, hunger among refugees: 300,000, patriots killed during occupation: 78,500, concentration camps: 35,000, Feb. 1937 massacre: 30,000, executions: 24,000, civilians killed by air force: 17,800.[要出典]
Specific war crimes alleged to have been committed by the Italian armed forces against civilians include deliberate bombing of civilians, killing unarmed children, women, and the elderly; rape and disembowelment of women; throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death, running over others with tanks, regular daily executions of civilians in some areas, and bombing tribal villages with mustard gas bombs, beginning in 1930.[要出典]
The Guardian reported in 2015 that Kony's forces had been responsible for the deaths of over 100,000 people and the kidnapping of at least 60,000 children. Various atrocities committed include raping young girls and abducting them for use as sex slaves.[要出典]
Alleged human rights abuses by the NIF regime included war crimes, ethnic cleansing, a revival of slavery, torture of opponents, and an unprecedented number of refugees fleeing into Uganda, Kenya, Eritrea, Egypt, Europe and North America.[107]
Since Indonesia has taken control of West Papua in 1963, the population of West Papua has recorded more than 100,000 unnatural deaths. The administration of West Papua has been called a police state.[要出典]
The Nanking Massacre, commonly known as the Rape of Nanking, was a war crime committed by the Japanese military in Nanjing, then capital of the Republic of China, after it fell to the Imperial Japanese Army on December 13, 1937. See: Death toll of the Nanking Massacre.
In the late 20th century, the Peruvian government (armed forces and civil rondas) fought against communist terrorists in Peru. The principal actors in the war were the Communist Party of Peru or "Shining Path" and the government of Peru; the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement was also involved and other paramilitary entities. Peru's Truth and Reconciliation Commission reached a figure of approx. 68,784 deaths and disappearances, of which 54% were ascribed to Shining Path, 1.5% to Tupac Amaru and 37% to State officials, who were also responsible for 83% of reported cases of sexual violence, and systematic use of torture. An academic research published in 2019 contests the Commission's methodology, reaching a total figure of approx. 47,849, of which 27,872 were victims of State officials, 18,341 of the Shining Path, and 1,636 by all other actors.[116][117]
The Sheikh Said Rebellion was a rebellion to revive the Islamic Caliphate System, and used elements of Kurdish nationalism for recruiting.[120] It was led by Sheikh Said and a group of former Ottoman soldiers, known as Hamidiye soldiers. The rebellion was of two Kurdish groups, the Zaza people and the speakers of the related Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish: it "was led specifically by the Zaza population and received almost full support in the entire Zaza region and some of the neighbouring Kurmanji-dominated regions".[121]
ISIS has existed as an active terrorist organization in one form or another since at least 2003. Many tens of thousands of casualties in the Iraqi wars of the 21st century can be attributed to them and their parent organizations. See also the death tolls from 2014 onwards in International military intervention against ISIL
There are allegations that war crimes were committed by the Sri Lankan military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Tamil Tigers) during the Sri Lankan Civil War, particularly during the final months of the Eelam War IV phase in 2009. The alleged war crimes include attacks on civilians and civilian buildings by both sides; executions of combatants and prisoners by both sides; enforced disappearances by the Sri Lankan military and paramilitary groups backed by them; acute shortages of food, medicine, and clean water for civilians trapped in the war zone; and child recruitment by the Tamil Tigers.[124][125]
The sack of the second city of the Byzantine Empire by a Muslim fleet under the command of Leo of Tripoli. In addition to the thousands killed, the Saracen fleet also took 20,000 Greek slaves.[要出典]
In a study published in 1996, historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta claims that the Three Alls Policy, a scorched earth policy implemented by the Imperial Japanese Army on China, sanctioned by Emperor Hirohito himself, was both directly and indirectly responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese civilians.[要出典]– Part of the Japanese war crimes
Minimum death toll is the number of corpses found in the Killing Fields.[要出典] Samuel Totten argues the mass killings were committed by fellow Khmer, and the Khmer were killed more in proportion to their population than other victims of the Khmer Rouge, making it more of a politicide.[165]
These killings have been described as autogenocide or civil genocide.
According to Samuel Totten7006132500000000000♠1,325,000 ethnic Khmers were killed.
After the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom the Qing government cracked down on the Hakka ethnic group for allying with the kingdom slaughtering 30,000 per day. The death toll of the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars is estimated to be 1,000,000 and there was also a mass execution done during the Taiping Rebellion. It is unclear whether these events refer to the Qing crackdown. If this death toll is applied to the estimated death rate, the massacre likely took place over the course of a month.[168][169][170]
Within the first three decades, the French military massacred between half a million to one million from approximately three million Algerian people.[171]
In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide between Hindus and Muslims.[172][173][174]
In 1960, the western-based nongovernmentalInternational Commission of Jurists (ICJ) gave a report titled Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic to the United Nations. The report was prepared by the ICJ's Legal Inquiry Committee, composed of eleven international lawyers from around the world. This report accused the Chinese of the crime of genocide in Tibet, after nine years of full occupation, six years before the devastation of the cultural revolution began.[要文献特定詳細情報] The ICJ also documented accounts of massacres, tortures and killings, bombardment of monasteries, and extermination of whole nomad camps. Declassified Soviet archives provides data that Chinese communists, who received a great assistance in military equipment from the Soviets, broadly used Soviet aircraft for bombing monasteries and other punitive operations in Tibet.[182]Template:Quote needed
According to Ben Kiernan, Cham were subjected to the most brutal treatment of those persecuted by the Khmer Rouge and subjected to the slaughter of 36% of their population according to Samuel Totten.[要出典]
During the First Congo War, Rwanda was able to destroy refugee camps, which the génocidaires had been using as their safe-bases, and forcibly repatriate Tutsi to Rwanda. During this process, Rwandan and aligned forces committed multiple atrocities, mainly against Hutu refugees. The true extent of the abuses is unknown because the AFDL and RPF carefully managed NGO and press access to areas where atrocities were thought to have occurred;[188] however, Amnesty International claimed as many as 200,000 Rwandese Hutu refugees were massacred by them and the Rwandan Defence Forces and aligned forces.[189] The United Nations similarly documented mass killings of civilians by Rwandan, Ugandan and the ADFL soldiers in the DRC Mapping Exercise Report.[要出典]
Ancient Chinese texts record that General Ran Min ordered the extermination of the Wu Hu, especially the Jie people, during the Wei–Jie war in the fourth century AD. People with racial characteristics such as high-bridged noses and bushy beards were killed; in total, 200,000 were reportedly massacred.[190]
The Parliamentarian reconquest of Ireland was brutal, and Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland.[191] The extent to which Cromwell, who was in direct command for the first year of the campaign, was responsible for the atrocities is debated to this day. Some historians[192] argue that the actions of Cromwell were within the then-accepted rules of war, or were exaggerated or distorted by later propagandists. These arguments, in turn, have been challenged by others.[193]
The Caste War of Yucatán against the population of European descent, called Yucatecos, who held political and economic control of the region. Adam Jones wrote, "Genocidal atrocities on both sides cost up to 200,000 killed."[194]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas
This war was a much smaller engagement than the two previous Punic Wars and focused on Tunisia, mainly on the Siege of Carthage, which resulted in the complete destruction of the city, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of the entire Carthaginian population. The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent existence.
1983 Barzani killings, 50,000[203] to 100,000[203] (although Kurdish sources have cited a higher figure of 182,000[204]) more Kurds were massacred in the Anfal genocide, and at least 20,000[205] were killed during the 1991 Iraqi uprising notwithstanding an additional 48,400[206] to 140,600[206] Kurdish refugees that starved to death along the Iranian and Turkish borders.
The civilian deaths under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, including killings, disappearances, and deaths caused by conflict-related hunger and illness,[218] resulted in an enormous proportional loss of life upon the island some estimating as high as 13% up to almost a third to almost 44% of the population.[217][219][220]
The indigenous rebellions of Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Katari against the Spanish between 1780 and 1782, cost over 100,000 colonists' lives in Peru and Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia).[244]
The Harkis were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture.[要出典]
According to the Historical Clarification Commission, 140,000 to 200,000 were killed or disappeared, and at least 42,275 were killed by human rights violations during the Guatemalan Civil War, of which 93% were from officially sanctioned government terror and 83% of the victims were Maya.
69.8% to 82% of civilian victims of the Bosnian War were Bosniak. During the War in Croatia, 43.4% of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians.[254]
From the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894): "The Indian wars under the government of the United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white people, including those killed in individual combats, and the lives of about 30,000 Indians. The actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the given ... Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate ..."[要出典] Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas.[要出典]
Lord Kitchener led the British army against the Boer Republics in the Second Boer War in Southern Africa. In an attempt to pacify Boer guerrillas, he targeted their families, and 116,000 Boer women and children were captured and jailed by the British, Within 2 years, 22,074 children died and 4,177 women died due to deliberate neglect by the British. 115,000 black people were separately jailed, of whom 15,000 died in prison camps.[264]
In 1916, there was an uprising and crackdown of Kyrgyzstanis against and by Tsarist Russia in what is now known as the Urkun.
A public commission in Kyrgyzstan called the crackdown of 1916 that killed 100,000 to 270,000 Kyrgyzstanis a genocidethough Russia rejected this characterization.[269]
It is difficult to determine the total number of people who died as a result of Indian massacres. However, one book, The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, presents an estimate by counting every recorded atrocity in the area that would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact (1511) to the closing of the frontier (1890). The parameters were limited to the intentional and indiscriminate murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. The results revealed that 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by those of European descent, and 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans.[300]– Part of the Genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas
Minimum death toll includes 790 Muslim death toll. Both death tolls include 254 Hindu deaths. Maximum death toll includes 223 presumed mixing as dead, and a higher 2,500 Muslim death toll.[要出典]
Massacres of people connected to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) were carried out in 1965–66 by the Indonesian Army and associated death squads with support from Western powers such as the United States.[334] Death tolls are difficult to estimate,[335] but it is widely accepted by scholars that roughly 1 million people were killed.[336]
The Great Purge or Great Terror was a period of intense political repression in the Soviet Union including execution (especially through open air shootings) and forced labor through the Gulag system.[要出典]
In Spain, the White Terror (also known as "la Represión Franquista" or the "Francoist Repression") was the series of acts of politically motivated violence, rape, and other crimes committed by the Nationalist movement during the Spanish Civil War (July 17, 1936 to April 1, 1939) and during Francisco Franco's dictatorship (October 1, 1936 – November 20, 1975)[343]
The death toll of the uprising against Saddam Hussein's government during 1991 was high throughout the country. The rebels killed many Ba'athist officials and officers. In response, thousands of unarmed civilians were killed by indiscriminate fire from loyalist tanks, artillery and helicopters, and many historical and religious structures in the south were deliberately targeted under orders from Saddam Hussein. Saddam's security forces entered the cities, often using women and children as human shields, where they detained and summarily executed or "disappeared" thousands of people at random in a policy of collective responsibility. Many suspects were tortured, raped, or burned alive.[355]
The Red Terror in Spain (スペイン語: Terror Rojo)[361] is the name given by historians to various acts of violence committed from 1936 until the end of the Spanish Civil War "by sections of nearly all the leftist groups".[362]
The Reign of Terror was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between two rival political factions, the Girondins and The Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution".[要出典]
At least 9,000 people were tortured and killed in Argentina from 1976 to 1983, carried out primarily by the Argentinean military Junta (part of Operation Condor).[357]
An era of martial law in Taiwan in which 140,000 where imprisoned, and 3,000 to 4,000 were executed for real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang.[要出典]
Laogai (勞改/劳改), the abbreviation for Láodòng Gǎizào (勞動改造/劳动改造), which means "reform through labor", is a slogan of the Chinese criminal justice system and has been used to refer to the use of penal labour and prison farms in the People's Republic of China (PRC), which once took up more than half of the world's slaves.[要出典]Laogai is different from laojiao, or re-education through labor, which was an administrative detention for a person who was not a criminal but had committed minor offenses, and was intended to reform offenders into law-abiding citizens.[383] Persons detained under laojiao were detained in facilities that were separate from the general prison system of laogai. Both systems, however, involved penal labor.[要出典]
There is no concrete number for the number of people killed due to the Barbary Slave Trade.
The method many people use is to estimate the mortality rate of slave raids and multiply them by the number people took as slaves. Scholars estimates 3 people were killed for every 1 slave abducted. Includes Barbary Slave Trade.[要出典]
Private forces under the control of Leopold II of Belgium carried out mass murders, mutilations, and other crimes against the Congolese in order to encourage the gathering of valuable raw materials, principally rubber. Significant deaths also occurred due to major disease outbreaks and starvation, caused by population displacement and poor treatment.[390] Estimates of the death toll vary considerably because of the lack of a formal census before 1924, but a commonly cited figure of 10 million deaths was obtained by estimating a 50% decline in the total population during the Congo Free State and applying it to the total population of 10 million in 1924.[391]
Gulag is an acronym for the organization that administered the forced labor system in the Soviet Union that became a colloquialism in the west for the camps themselves. The system was used to punish criminals, political dissidents, and prisoners of war.[要出典] There is a growing consensus among scholars that, based on archival data, the number of deaths in the gulag system fall within the range 1.5 to 1.7 million.[395][396][397]
R.J. Rummel, coiner of the word "Democide," estimated the mortality rate for MexicanPeonage, a form of debt labor, by comparing it to similar forced labor systems such as the Soviet Gulag, and then applying and reducing it accordingly to the population of Mexico at the time, coming up with an annual death rate of 69,000.[要出典]
Forced labour was used in the construction of the Burma Railway. More than 180,000 Southeast Asian civilian labourers (Romusha) and 60,000 Alliedprisoners of war (POWs) worked on the railway. Of these, estimates of Romusha deaths are little more than guesses, but probably about 90,000 died. 12,621 Allied POWs died during the construction. The dead POWs included 6,904 British personnel, 2,802 Australians, 2,782 Dutch, and 133 Americans.[405]
French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan in 1854–56 to build the Suez Canal. Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000,[406] but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue, and disease, especially cholera.[407]
80,000[408] to 100,000[408][409] Chinese contract laborers, 95% of which were Cantonese and almost all of which were male, were sent mostly to the sugar plantations from 1849 to 1874, during the termination of slavery. They were to provide continuous labor for the coastal guano mines and especially for the coastal plantations where they became a major labor force (contributing greatly to the Peruvian guano boom) until the end of the century. While the coolies were believed to be reduced to virtual slaves, they also represented a historical transition from slave to free labor. A third group of Chinese workers was contracted for the construction of the railway from Lima to La Oroya and Huancayo. Chinese migrants were barred from using cemeteries reserved for Roman Catholics, and were instead buried at pre-Incan burial sites.[410] Between 1849 and 1874 half[408][409] the Chinese population of Peru perished due to abuse, exhaustion, and suicide[409] caused by forced labor.[408][409]
According to the Japanese military's own record, nearly 25% of 140,000 Allied POWs died while interned in Japanese prison camps, where they were forced to work (U.S. POWs died at a rate of 27%).[411][412]
During the Great Leap Forward under Mao Zedong tens of millions of Chinese starved to death.[416] State violence during this period further exacerbated the death toll, and some 2.5 million people were beaten or tortured to death in connection with Great Leap policies.[417]
Between 12 and 51 million Indians (or even more) died of starvation while India under British rule (East India Company and British Raj). Millions of tonnes of wheat were exported to Britain as famine raged.[418]
The Persian famine of 1917–1919 was a period of widespread mass starvation and disease in Persia (Iran). The famine took place in the occupied territory of Iran that had declared neutrality. According to the estimates acknowledged, 2–10 million people died of hunger and disease. A variety of factors are commented to have caused and contributed to the famine such as war profiteering, and poor harvests but mainly requisitioning and confiscation of foodstuffs by the occupying Russian and British armies.[435][436]
The Japanese conquest of Burma cut off India's main supply of rice imports,[439] however, war-related administrative policies in British India ultimately helped to cause the massive death toll.[440][441]
More than two million Igbo died from the famine imposed deliberately through blockades during the war. Lack of medicine also contributed. Thousands starved to death daily as the war progressed.[要出典]
An estimated 2.4 million Indonesians starved to death during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia. The problem was partly caused by failures of the main 1944–45 rice crop, but the main cause was the compulsory rice purchasing system that the Japanese authorities put in place to secure rice for distribution to the armed forces and urban population.[445]
The famine stemmed from a variety of factors. Economic mismanagement and the loss of Soviet support caused food production and imports to decline rapidly. A series of floods and droughts exacerbated the crisis, but were not its direct cause. The North Korean government and its centrally-planned system proved too inflexible to effectively curtail the disaster. Recent research suggests the likely number of excess deaths between 1993 and 2000 was about 330,000.[446][448]
Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland, where a third of the population was significantly dependent on the Irish Lumper potato for food, was exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors, which continue to remain the subject of historical debate.[452][453]
An estimated 2 million Cambodians lost their lives to murder, forced labor, and famine, perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge, nearly half of which was caused by forced starvation. Came to an end due to invasion by Vietnam in 1979.
Around 200,000 people starved to death at a time when the population of Mount Lebanon was estimated at 400,000.[462] The Mount Lebanon famine caused the highest fatality rate by population of World War I. Bodies were piled in the streets, and people were reported to be eating street animals, while some resorted to cannibalism.[463]
The famine was triggered by Saudi Arabia's intervention into the Yemeni Civil War, which is backed by Western powers including the United States.[467] Around 13 million people, or roughly half of the country's population, is facing starvation in what the UN calls "the worst famine in the world in 100 years".[468]
4,900,000 to 6,200,000 Jews killed (2/3s to 78% of European Jewry killed)[522][523][524]
7,405,000 to 17,244,692 civilians and 13,000,000 to 19,350,000 German and Soviet soldiers alone 13,000,000 to 19,350,000[525] killed by Generalplan Ost and Hunger Plan
Private forces under the control of Leopold II of Belgium carried out mass murders, mutilations, and other crimes against the Congolese in order to encourage the gathering of valuable raw materials, principally rubber. Significant deaths also occurred due to major disease outbreaks and starvation, caused by population displacement and poor treatment.[390] Estimates of the death toll vary considerably due to the lack of a formal census before 1924, but a commonly cited figure of 10 million deaths was obtained by estimating a 50% decline in the total population during the Congo Free State and applying it to the total population of 10 million in 1924.[391] See also: Atrocities in the Congo Free State
Putting an end to most foreign trade relationships, Ranavalona I pursued a policy of self-reliance, made possible through frequent use of the long-standing tradition of fanompoana—forced labor in lieu of tax payments in money or goods. Ranavalona continued the wars of expansion conducted by her predecessor, Radama I, in an effort to extend her realm over the entire island, and imposed strict punishments on those who were judged as having acted in opposition to her will. Due in large part to loss of life throughout the years of military campaigns, high death rates among fanompoana workers, and harsh traditions of justice under her rule, the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833–39, and from 750,000 to 130,000 between 1829–42 in Imerina.[566] These statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona's rule in historical accounts.[567]
Diseases and starvation: 130,000 (1939–1943) Repression: 30,000–100,000 (1939–1948) Prison camps: 20,000 (1939–1943) Spanish Maquis: 5,548 (1939–1965) World War II: 5,000 (Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria) Blue Division: Casualties in the Russo-German conflict totalled 22,700. In action against the Blue Division, the Red Army suffered 49,300 casualties.
Idi Amin's rule of Uganda saw excessive and egregious human rights abuses toward ethnic minorities and political opposition, earning him the nickname "The Butcher of Uganda."
Macías Nguema is regarded as one of the most kleptocratic, corrupt, and dictatorial leaders in post-colonial African history. Sources vary, but he was responsible for the deaths of anywhere from 50,000 to 80,000 of the 300,000 to 400,000 people living in the country at the time.[要出典]
Duvalier's rule based on a purged military, a rural militia known as the Tonton Macoute, and the use of cult of personality, resulted in the murder of 30,000 to 60,000 Haitians, and the exile of many more.[要出典]
In May 2016, Hissène Habré was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people. He was sentenced to life in prison. He is the first former head of state to be convicted for human rights abuses in the court of another nation.[616]
Minimum death toll only includes lowest estimate of those burned at the stake, whereas the maximum death toll also includes those who died from hunger and torture.
150,000 perished in concentration camps, and only counts the 5,000 alleged spies and 2,000 party members executed, noting that 5,000 spies came from only 98,000 out of 700,000 alleged spies.[623][624]「ハンガリー共産党」も参照
The conservative estimate is recorded from 1975 to 1985, while the maximum estimate is recorded from 1965 to 1976. Also Includes those from the Moro conflict.
^These death toll estimates vary due to lack of consensus as to the demographic size of the native population pre-Columbus, which some say might never be accurately determined. Modern scholarship tend to side with the higher estimates, but there is still variance based on calculation methods used. Even using conservative populations estimates, however, "one dreadful conclusion is inescapable: the 150 years after Columbus's arrival brought a toll on human life in this hemisphere comparable to all of the world's losses during World War II. ... Against the alien agents of disease, the indigenous people never had a chance. Their immune systems were unprepared to fight smallpox and measles, malaria and yellow fever. The epidemics that resulted have been well documented."[13] A small industry of researchers in recent years have focused their attention on Native American population size in 1492, and the subsequent decimation of the population after contact with Europeans.[14] They have stated that their findings in no way diminish the "dreadful impact Old World diseases had on the people of the New World. But it suggests that the New World was hardly a healthful Eden." For example, they note that as the previously thriving indigenous peoples became more urbanized and less mobile, they succumbed to the same declining sanitation and health conditions of other urban cultures, including tuberculosis. The researchers stress, however, that "their findings in no way mitigated the responsibility of Europeans as bearers of disease devastating to native societies."[13]
^While there are many estimates for civilian deaths, with some even going well over a million for the war, modern historians generally place the death toll between 200,000 and 250,000; see "Casualties".
^The Casement estimate is used by Ascherson in his book The King Incorporated, although he notes that it is "almost certainly an underestimate".[388]
^The Casement estimate is used by Ascherson in his book The King Incorporated, although he notes that it is "almost certainly an underestimate".[388]
出典
^ abcdefghPinto, Carla M. A.; Lopes, A. Mendes; Machado, J.A. Tenreiro (2014). Ferreira, Nuno Miguel Fonseca; Machado, José António Tenreiro (eds.). “Casualties Distribution in Human and Natural Hazards”. Mathematical Methods in Engineering. Springer Netherlands: 173–180. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7183-3_16. ISBN978-94-007-7182-6.
^ abcPing-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53.
^ abMcEvedy, Colin; Jones, Richard M. (1978). Atlas of World Population History. New York, NY: Puffin. p. 172. ISBN9780140510768.
^ abGraziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population". Academic Press. p.34. ISBN0-12-765660-X
^ abAmerican Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present; Erin McKenna, Scott L. Pratt; Bloomsbury; 2015, pg. 375; "It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent."
^Richard H. Steckel and Jerome C. Rose: The Backbone of History Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, Cambridge University Press; 1st edition; pg. 79; ISBN9780521617444
^Matthew White (2012). The Great Big Book of Horrible Things: The Definitive Chronicle of History's 100 Worst Atrocities. W. W. Norton. pp. 529–530. ISBN978-0-393-08192-3.
^Derk Bodde, China's First Unifier: A Study in the Ch'in Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssu, 280? – 208 BC, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1967, pp. 5–6.
^Chris Peers estimates that 1,500,000 were killed before the last campaign in 230–221 BC, Warlords of China, 700 BC to AD 1662, London: Arms and Armour, 1998, pg. 59.
^ abPang., Loretta『Horizons. History 241W: Asian History from the 15th Century to Present.』Kapiolani Community College、1997年。
^Jurg Meister, Francisco Solano López Nationalheld oder Kriegsverbrecher?, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1987. 345, 355, 454–55
^Another estimate is that from the pre-war population of 1,337,437, the population fell to 221,709 (28,746 men, 106,254 women, 86,079 children) by the end of the war (War and the Breed, David Starr Jordan, pg. 164. Boston, 1915; Applied Genetics, Paul Popenoe, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1918)
^ abcdHack, Karl; Rettig, Tobias (2006). Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia). Abingdon-on-Thames, United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-33413-6. p.172
^ abAguinaldo, E. (2016). A Second Look at America (Classic Reprint). Fb&c Limited. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-333-84114-0. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
^ abSmallman-Raynor, Matthew; Cliff, Andrew D. (1998). "The Philippines insurrection and the 1902–4 cholera epidemic: Part I—Epidemiological diffusion processes in war". Journal of Historical Geography. 24 (1): 69–89. doi:10.1006/jhge.1997.0077.
^ abValentino, Benjamin A. (2005). Final solutions: mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century (1. print ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press. ISBN978-0-8014-7273-2
^ abBailey, Norman A. (1967). “La Violencia in Colombia”. Journal of Inter-American Studies. Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Miami. 9 (4): 561–75. doi:10.2307/164860. JSTOR164860.
^Donald Greer, The Terror, a Statistical Interpretation, Cambridge (1935)
^ abReynald Secher, La Vendée-Vengé, le Génocide franco-français (1986)
^Jean-Clément Martin, La Vendée et la France, Éditions du Seuil, collection Points, 1987 he gives the highest estimate of the civil war, including republican losses and premature death. However, he does not consider it as a genocide.
^Jacques Hussenet (dir.), "Détruisez la Vendée! "Regards croisés sur les victimes et destructions de la guerre de Vendée, La Roche-sur-Yon, Centre vendéen de recherches historiques, 2007, p.148.
^Gough, Hugh (December 1987). “Genocide and the Bicentenary: The French Revolution and the Revenge of the Vendee”. The Historical Journal. 30 (4): 977–988. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00022433. JSTOR2639130.
^ abcRummel, Rudolph (1997), Statistics of Vietnamese Democide, in his Statistics of Democide, Table 6.1A, line 467 & Table 6.1B, lines 675, 730, 749–51.
^Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn; Lobban, Richard (Spring 2001). “The Sudan Since 1989: National Islamic Front Rule”. Arab Studies Quarterly. 23 (2): 1–9. JSTOR41858370.
^Rajaee, Farhang (1997). Iranian Perspectives on the Iran-Iraq War. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. p. 2. ISBN9780813014760. OCLC492125659.
^Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 418. ISBN9781598843361. OCLC775759780.
^Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century (1999) P. 134-5
^Jan Palmowski, Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History (Oxford, 1997)
^Clodfelter, Michael, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991
^Chirot, Daniel: Modern Tyrants: the power and prevalence of evil in our age (1994)
^"B&J": Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, International Conflict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995 (1997), pg. 195.
^"An Anatomy of the Massacres", Ait-Larbi, Ait-Belkacem, Belaid, Nait-Redjam, and Soltani, in An Inquiry into the Algerian Massacres, ed. Bedjaoui, Aroua, and Ait-Larbi, Hoggar: Geneva 1999.
^ ab“341 students died at Northern residential schools – CBC News”. CBC. Sinclair said the total number of recorded residential school deaths in Canada — 3,201 — could be an underestimate given poor record keeping, and the real number of deaths could have been five to 10 times higher.
^Reitlinger, Gerald. The Final Solution. The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945, New York: Beechhurst Press. Review by Friedman, Philip (1954). "Review of The Final Solution". Jewish Social Studies 16 (2): 186–89. JSTOR4465231. See also a review by Hyamson, Albert M. (1953). "Review of The Final Solution". International Affairs 29 (4): 494–95. JSTOR2606046
^"How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust?". Yad Vashem. (FAQs about the Holocaust).
^"The Holocaust: Tracing Lost Family Members". JVL. Retrieved November 2013.
^ abHeuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia". In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
^Tomasz Szarota & Wojciech Materski (2009), Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami, Warsaw: Institute of National Remembrance; ISBN978-83-7629-067-6 (Excerpt reproduced in digital form).
^Hannum, Hurst (1989). "International Law and Cambodian Genocide: The Sounds of Silence", Human Rights Quarterly (Johns Hopkins University Press) 11 (1): 82–138. doi:10.2307/761936. JSTOR761936.
^CDI: The Center for Defense Information, The Defense Monitor, "The World At War: January 1, 1998".
^Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. pg. 100
^《晉書·卷一百七》Jin ShuOriginal text 閔躬率趙人誅諸胡羯，無貴賤男女少長皆斬之，死者二十余萬，屍諸城外，悉為野犬豺狼所食。屯據四方者，所在承閔書誅之，于時高鼻多須至有濫死者半。
^John Morley, Biography of Oliver Cromwell, p. 298. published 1900 and 2001; ISBN978-1-4212-6707-4 "Cromwell is still a hate figure in Ireland today because of the brutal effectiveness of his campaigns in Ireland. Of course, his victories in Ireland made him a hero in Protestant England." “Archived copy”. 2007年9月28日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. 2009年5月25日閲覧.{{cite web2}}: CS1メンテナンス: タイトルが「アーカイブされたコピー」 (カテゴリ) British National Archives web site. Retrieved March 2007; “Archived copy”. 2004年12月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. 2006年1月17日閲覧.{{cite web2}}: CS1メンテナンス: タイトルが「アーカイブされたコピー」 (カテゴリ) From a history site dedicated to the English Civil War. "... making Cromwell's name into one of the most hated in Irish history". Retrieved March 2007. “Archived copy”. 2004年12月11日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. 2006年1月17日閲覧.{{cite web2}}: CS1メンテナンス: タイトルが「アーカイブされたコピー」 (カテゴリ)
^Philip McKeiver in his 2007 work, A New History of Cromwell's Irish CampaignISBN978-0-9554663-0-4 and Tom Reilly, 1999, Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy; ISBN0-86322-250-1
^Dutton, Donald G. (2007). The Psychology of Genocide, Massacres, and Extreme Violence: Why "normal" People Come to Commit Atrocities. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 14. ISBN9780275990008.
^Friedman, Mark (2013). Genocide (Hot Topics). Raintree. p. 58. ISBN9781406235081.
^ abcdRoutine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates. https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB14.1C.GIF row 1313 and 1314
1,000,000 and 10,000 to 2,000,000 and 100,000 Kurds were displaced and killed respectively between 1963 and 1987; 250,000 of them in 1977 and 1978. If deaths are proportional to the displacement then 2,500 to 12,500 Kurds would of died during this period depending on the scale of overall displacement and deaths used.
^ ab
1,000 deaths per day in April, May and June along Turkish border
a - "Iraqi Deaths from the Gulf War as of April 1992," Greenpeace, Washington, D.C. See also "Aftermath of War: The Persian Gulf War Refugee Crisis," Staff Report to the Senate Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Immigration and Refugee Affairs, May 20, 1991. The figure of nearly 1,000 deaths per day is also given in "Kurdistan in the Time of Saddam Hussein," Staff Report to the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, November 1991, p.14.
"hundreds" (100 to 900?) died per day along Iranian border
b -Kurdish Refugees Straggle Into Iran, Followed By Tragedy, Associated Press, Apr 13, 1991
1,100 to 1,900 (a + b) deaths per day from at least April 13th (b) up to between May 1st and May 31st (a ); which suggests 44 to 74 days:
1,100(44)= 48,400
1,900(74)= 140,600
Routine calculationsRoutine calculations do not count as original research, provided there is consensus among editors that the result of the calculation is obvious, correct, and a meaningful reflection of the sources. Basic arithmetic, such as adding numbers, converting units, or calculating a person's age are some examples of routine calculations. See also Category:Conversion templates.
^Bancheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry (2004). De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN9781135771201.{{cite book2}}: CS1メンテナンス: デフォルトと同じref (カテゴリ)
^Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła", 2011, pp. 447–448
^Terles in Ethnic Cleansing, p. 61 Czesław Partacz, Prawda historyczna na prawda polityczna w badaniach naukowych. Przykład ludobójstwa na Kresach Południowo-Wschodniej Polski w latach 1939–1946 Lucyna Kulińska "Dzieci Kresów III", Kraków 2009, p. 467 Józef Turowski, Władysław Siemaszko: Zbrodnie nacjonalistów ukraińskich dokonane na ludności polskiej na Wołyniu 1939–1945. Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce – Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Środowisko Żołnierzy 27 Wołyńskiej Dywizji Armii Krajowej w Warszawie, 1990
Hochspringen ↑ Władysław Siemaszko, Ewa Siemaszko [2000]: Ludobójstwo dokonane przez nacjonalistów ukraińskich na ludności polskiej Wołynia 1939–1945. Borowiecky, Warszawa 2000; ISBN83-87689-34-3, S. 1056.
^M. Kalman, Belge, tanık ve yaşayanlarıyla Ağrı Direnişi 1926–1930, Pêrî Yayınları, İstanbul, 1997; ISBN975-8245-01-5, pg. 105.
^"Der Krieg am Ararat" (Telegramm unseres Korrespondenten) Berliner Tageblatt, October 3, 1930, "... die Türken in der Gegend von Zilan 220 Dörfer zerstört und 4500 Frauen und Greise massakriert."
^ ab* Srpske žrtve rata i poraća na području Hrvatske i bivše RSK 1990. – 1998. godine", Veritas. Retrieved June 16, 2015.(クロアチア語)
Martić Witness Details Croatian War Casualties", Global Voices BALKANS. Retrieved April 13, 2006.(英語)
Marko Attila Hoare, "Genocide in Bosnia and the failure of international justice" (PDF), Kingston University (UK), April 2008. Retrieved March 23, 2011.
^*"Dëshmorët e Ushtrisë Çlirimtare Kombëtare", shkruar nga Xhemal Selimi. Tanusha 2001. February 15, 2011.
Bender, Kristof (2013). "How the U.S. and EU Stopped a War and Nobody Noticed: The Containment of the Macedonian Conflict and EU Soft Power". In Berdal, Mats; Zaum, Dominik. Political Economy of Statebuilding: Power After Peace. London: Routledge. pg. 341; ISBN978-0-203-10130-8
^Lukas, Richard C. (2012). The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles under German Occupation, 1939–1944. Hippocrene Books. p. 197. ISBN978-0-7818-1302-0.
^Walter Laqueur & Judith Tydor Baumel (2001). "Dirlewanger, Oskar". The Holocaust Encyclopedia, Yale University Press (pg. 150), ISBN0300084323. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
^Naimark, Norman M. Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press, 2002, pg. 52.
^Irving Louis Horowitz; Rudolph J. Rummel (1994). “Turkey's Genocidal Purges”. Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. ISBN978-1-56000-927-6., pg. 233.
^Budapest Declaration and Geneva Declaration on Ethnic Cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia between 1992 and 1993 adopted by the OSCE and recognized as ethnic cleansing in 1994 and 1999.
^The Guns of August 2008, Russia's War in Georgia, Svante Cornell & Frederick Starr, pg. 27.
^Anatol Lieven, "Victorious Abkhazian Army Settles Old Scores in An Orgy of Looting", The Times, October 4, 1993.
^"In Georgia, Tales of Atrocities Lee Hockstander", International Herald Tribune, October 22, 1993.
^The Human Rights Field Operation: Law, Theory and Practice, Abkhazia Case, Michael O'Flaherty
^The Politics of Religion in Russia and the New States of Eurasia, Michael Bourdeaux, pg. 237.
^Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives, Alekseĭ Georgievich Arbatov, pg. 388
^Georgiy I. Mirsky, On Ruins of Empire: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union, pg. 72
^Osborn, William M. (2001). The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, Garden City, New York: Random House; ISBN978-0-375-50374-0
^“Canada's Dark Secret”. www.aljazeera.com. 2018年5月20日閲覧. 6,000 children died in these schools. Some evidence puts the casualties at three times that number.
^Pamela Palmater (29 March 2017). “Canada 150 is a celebration of Indigenous genocide”. Now. Celebrating genocide is not what most would consider a modern Canadian value. While use of the term "genocide" to describe Canada's treatment of Indigenous peoples has created a great deal of debate, there has always been a recognition that, at minimum, Canada was guilty of "cultural genocide," even if individuals couldn't bring themselves to accept more sinister intentions. Former prime minister Paul Martin told the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) that it was time to call the residential schools policy what it was: "cultural genocide." Supreme Court of Canada Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin weighed in on Canada's dismal human rights record, saying that residential schools were attempts to commit "cultural genocide" against Indigenous peoples.{{cite web2}}: Cite webテンプレートでは|access-date=引数が必須です。 (説明)
^"Which groups are under threat by ISIS in Iraq?", cnn.com. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
^Carlos A. Floria and César A. García Belsunce, 1971. Historia de los Argentinos I and II; ISBN84-599-5081-6. [要ページ番号]
^"As Christians Flee, Governments Pressured To Declare ISIS Guilty Of Genocide". NPR. December 24, 2015. "At least a thousand Christians have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have fled."
^USHMM (5 December 1995). “The Chinese Case: Was It Genocide or Poor Policy?”. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2017年8月23日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. The Cultural Revolution was modern China's most destructive episode. It is estimated that 100 million people were persecuted and about five to ten million people, mostly intellectuals and party officials lost their lives.{{cite web2}}: Cite webテンプレートでは|access-date=引数が必須です。 (説明)CS1メンテナンス: url-status=bot: unknown (カテゴリ)
^ abMosher, Steven (1992). China Misperceived: American Illusions and Chinese Reality. Basic Books. p. 74. ISBN 0-465-09813-4. The Terror—no other term will do—that began in 1950 was to last for three years and cost several million lives before it ended. It originated in two distinct political campaigns, each a ruthless effort to crush a particular class. The land reform, while nominally an effort to reapportion the land to poor and lower-middle-class peasants, was actually intended to destroy the old rural elite, replacing it with a new rural power structure dominated by those who had received parcels of land from the CCP and the new regime.4 The "suppression of counterrevolutionaries" campaign was designed to eliminate the bureaucratic bourgeoisie—those compradores, traders, and KMT functionaries who were seen by the party as economic parasites or political foes. [...] The U.S. State Department in 1976 estimated that there may have been a million killed in the land reform, 800,000 killed in the counterrevolutionary campaign.7 Maurice Meisner, who is sympathetic to the need for revolutionary terror, allowed that perhaps 2 million people were executed during the first three years of the PRC.8 Jacques Guillermaz, the distinguished French Sinologist, who served as French Military Attaché in Nanjing during the civil war and later in Beijing, estimated in his La Chine populaire, published in 1964, that a total of 1 to 3 million were executed.9 He later increased this estimate to 5 million, a figure that Fairbank has cited as the upper range of "sober" estimates.10 The highest estimate comes from Nationalist officials on Taiwan, who were not inclined to underestimate the ferocity of their victorious opponents. They alleged that 6 million urban residents and 4 million rural gentry had been killed during these years. [...] 7. Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, Deaths in China Due to Communism, Occasional Paper No. 15., Center for Asian Studies (Tempe: Arizona State University, 1984), p. 24. 8. Maurice Meisner, Mao's China: A History of the People's Republic (New York: The Free Press, 1977), p. 81. 9. Jacques Guillermaz, La Chine populaire, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), p. 47. 10. Jacques Guillermaz, The Chinese Communist Party in Power, 1949—1976 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1976), p. 24, n. 6
^Эрлихман, Вадим (2004). Потери народонаселения в XX веке. Издательский дом "Русская панорама". ISBN5931651071.
^Julián Casanova, Francisco Espinosa, Conxita Mir, Francisco Moreno Gómez. "Morir, matar, sobrevivir. La violencia en la dictadura de Franco", Editorial Crítica. Barcelona, Spain. 2002. p. 8.
^Michael Richards, A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco's Spain, 1936–1945, Cambridge University Press. 1998. pg. 11.
^Antony Beevor. The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939, Weidenfeld & Nicolson (2006), pp. 89–94.
^Beevor, Antony. The Battle for Spain; The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. Penguin Books. 2006. London. p. 87
^de la Cueva, Julio, "Religious Persecution", Journal of Contemporary History, 3, 198, pp. 355–69. JSTOR261121
^Julian Casanova, Unearthing Franco's Legacy, pp. 105–06, University of Notre Dame Press, 2010; ISBN0-268-03268-8
^Beevor, Antony (2006), The Battle For Spain; The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, pg. 81.
^Moise, pp. 205–22; "Newly released documents on the land reform", Vietnam Studies Group. “Archived copy”. 2011年4月20日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. 2016年6月30日閲覧.{{cite web2}}: CS1メンテナンス: タイトルが「アーカイブされたコピー」 (カテゴリ)
^ abRonald Segal, in Islam's Black Slaves, estimates the total number of African slaves shipped to the Muslim world at 11.5M-14M. This breaks down as follows: From 650-1600 CE Citing Ralph Austen: Trans-Saharan: 4,820,000 Red Sea: 1.6M East Africa: 0.8M TOTAL: 7.22M shipped Citing Paul Lovejoy: 3.5-10.0M shipped 17th Century Sahara: 0.7M Red Sea: 0.1M East Africa: 0.1M TOTAL: 900,000 shipped 18th C Sahara: 0.7M Red Sea: 0.2M East Africa: 0.4M TOTAL: 1,300,000 shipped 19th C Sahara: 1.2M Red Sea: 0.45M East Africa: 0.442M TOTAL: 2,092,000 shipped TOTAL: 11,512,000 shipped Segal also mentions estimates by Raymond Mauvy: 7th C: 0.1M 8th C: 0.2M 9th C: 0.4M 10th-13th Cs: 2.0M 14th C: 1.0M 15th-19th Cs: 10.0M First half 20th C.: 300,000 TOTAL: 14M shipped What was the mortality rate among these slaves? Here are a few estimates in Segal: Wylde: Each eunuch in Cairo represented 200 dead Sudanese. Hourst, 19th C: each sale represented a loss of ten in the original population, including raids. Livingstone: 1 living = 10 dead. British Govt Rpt: For every 10 slaves reaching 19C Cairo, 50 died on the way. Nachtigal: on one large [typical?] Saharan caravan, 3 or 4 died for every survivor. UK Consul in Zanzibar: 1:1 ratio Mahadi: 20% d. in Saharan trade Lovejoy, citing Martin: 9% overall in 19th C. East Africa. (Segal: safe estimate) [MEDIAN of these estimates: 3 to 5 deaths for every 1 live import]
^Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017). Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag, Yale University Press.
^Healey, Dan (1 June 2018). “GOLFO ALEXOPOULOS. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag”. The American Historical Review. 123 (3): 1049–1051. doi:10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049. New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953.
^Steven Rosefielde. Red Holocaust.Routledge, 2009. ISBN0-415-77757-7 pg. 67 "...more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivally based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953."
^ abcHaas, Benjamin (19 September 2018). “'Ashamed': South Koreans chilled by Kim Jong-un's cuddles”. the Guardian. 2018年9月20日閲覧. North Korea runs massive prison camps that hold between 80,000 and 120,000 political prisoners, according to a United Nations inquiry that compiled evidence of a raft of crimes against humanity. The UN commission cited 'extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation'.
^Wemheuer, Felix (July 2011). “Sites of horror: Mao's Great Famine [with response]”. The China Journal (66): 155–64. JSTOR41262812. on p.163 Frank Dikötter, in his response, quotes Yu Xiguang's figure of 55 million
^Katouzian 2013, p. 1934: "Russian Revolution of 1917 brought much relief to Iran after a century of imperial interference and intimidation. But it was followed by severe famine and the Spanish flu pandemic which, combined, took a high toll of around two million, mostly of the Iranian poor."
^Rubin 2015, p. 508: "Despite Iran's official neutrality, this pattern of interference continued during World War I as Ottoman-, Russian-, British-, and German-supported local forces fought across Iran, wreaking enormous havoc on the country. With farmland, crops, livestock, and infrastructure destroyed, as many as 2 million Iranians died of famine at the war's end. Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the recall of Russian troops, and thus gave hope to Iranians that the foreign yoke might be relenting, the British quickly moved to fill the vacuum in the north, and by 1918, had turned the country into an unofficial protectorate."
^Winegard 2016, p. 85: "Between 1917 and 1919, it is estimated that nearly half (nine to eleven million people) of the Persian population died of starvation or disease brought on by malnutrition."
^Majd 2003, p. 72: "According to the American Charge d'Affaires, Wallace Smith Murray, this famine had claimed one-third of Iran's population. A famine that even according to British sources as General Dunsterville, Major Donohoe, and General Sykes had claimed vast numbers of Iranians".
^Majd 2003, p. 40. In the matter of tough custom regulations, Majd mentions incidents of unsuccessful importation of foodstuff recorded by the American embassy. He also refers to a letter by an American official saying "for the last two years practically all the importations have ceased"
^Rubin 2015, p. 508: "Despite Iran's official neutrality, this pattern of interference continued during World War I as Ottoman-, Russian-, British-, and German-supported local forces fought across Iran, wreaking enormous havoc on the country. With farmland, crops, livestock, and infrastructure destroyed, as many as 2 million Iranians died of famine at the war's end. Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the recall of Russian troops, and thus gave hope to Iranians that the foreign yoke might be relenting, the British quickly moved to fill the vacuum in the north, and by 1918, had turned the country into an unofficial protectorate."
^ abcSpoorenberg, Thomas; Schwekendiek, Daniel (2012). “Demographic Changes in North Korea: 1993–2008”. Population and Development Review. 38 (1): 133–158. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2012.00475.x.
^Foster, R.F. Modern Ireland 1600–1972, Penguin Press, 1988. pg. 324. Foster's footnote reads: "Based on hitherto unpublished work by C. Ó Gráda and Phelim Hughes, 'Fertility trends, excess mortality and the Great Irish Famine'...Also see C.Ó Gráda and Joel Mokyr, 'New developments in Irish Population History 1700–1850', Economic History Review, vol. xxxvii, no. 4 (November 1984), pp. 473–88."
^Joseph Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society pg. 1. Lee says 'at least 800,000'.
^Vaughan, W.E. and Fitzpatrick, A.J.(eds). Irish Historical Statistics, Population, 1821/1971. Royal Irish Academy, 1978.
^Cecil Woodham-Smith (1991). The great hunger: Ireland 1845–1849. Penguin Books. p. 19. ISBN978-0-14-014515-1.
^Christine Kinealy (2006). This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine, 1845–52. ISBN978-0-7171-4011-4.
^朱蕾 (2015-10-27). "資料解密：黃河花園口決堤 阻敵南下". World Journal. Whitestone, NY. Archived from the original on 2018-08-18 – via United Daily News.
^李怡芸 (2015-09-30). "重探抗戰史 黃河決堤有效禦敵". 旺報. Taipei: China Times Group.
^汤其成; 李秀云; Institute of Geographic Sciences, China Academy of Sciences (1995). "水圈中的自然灾害". In 王劲峰 (ed.). 中国自然灾害区划——灾害区划、影响评价、减灾对策. Beijing: 中国科学技术出版社. p. 41.
^Karatnycky, Adrian; Cavanaugh, Kathleen; Finn, James; Graybow, Charles; Payne, Douglas W.; Ryan, Joseph E.; Sussman, Leonard R.; Zarycky, George; Finn, James (1995). Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights & Civil Liberties, 1994–1995(PDF). New York: Freedom House. p. 521. 2018年10月5日時点のオリジナル(PDF)よりアーカイブ. 2018年10月5日閲覧. During the first four months of 1994, the Human Rights Committee of South Africa reported that politically motivated killings occurred at a rate of nearly fourteen deaths per day.
^Wellers, Georges. "Essai de determination du nombre de morts au camp d'Auschwitz (attempt to determine the number of dead at the Auschwitz camp)", Le Monde Juif, Oct–Dec 1983, pp. 127–59.
^Peter Witte and Stephen Tyas, A New Document on the Deportation and Murder of Jews during "Einsatz Reinhardt" 1942, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol 15, No. 3, Winter 2001; ISBN0-19-922506-0
^Raul Hilberg (2003). The Destruction of the European Jews: Third Edition. ISBN978-0-300-09557-9.
^Yitzhak Arad, Bełżec, Sobibor, Treblinka. The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987; NCR 0-253-34293-7
^“Balkan 'Auschwitz' haunts Croatia”. BBC News. 25 April 2005. 2010年9月29日閲覧. No one really knows how many died here. Serbs talk of 700,000. Most estimates put the figure nearer 100,000.
^Ludwik Kowalski: Alaska notes on Stalinism. Retrieved January 18, 2007. Case Study: Stalin's Purges from Genderside Watch. Retrieved January 19, 2007. George Bien, Gulag Survivor in the Boston Globe, June 22, 2005, Kolyma.
^ abNiewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN0-231-11200-9.
^ abcÓ Gráda, Cormac (2019). "The famines of WWII". Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved 2022-01-03. One famine cost 100,000 lives in Tokyo in the second half of 1945; another was the Soviet famine of 1946–1947. The latter was proportionately most severe in Moldova, where 100,000 or 5% of the population perished, but most costly in numbers of lives in Ukraine (300,000) and elsewhere in the Soviet Union (500,000) (Ellman 2000: 611–617, Vallin et al. 2012: 70). Elsewhere, despite Truman's warning, malnutrition was widespread but famine was averted (Aldous 2010, Collingham 2011: 467–474).
^ abゲルハルト・ライヒンク『Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen』1986年。ISBN3-88557-046-7。
^ abTomasz Szarota; Wojciech Materski, eds. (2009). Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami [Poland 1939–1945. Human Losses and Victims of Repression under two Occupations]. Warsaw: Institute of National Remembrance (IPN). Archived from the original on March 23, 2012. – Janusz Kurtyka; Zbigniew Gluza. Preface.: "ze pod okupacja sowiecka zginelo w latach 1939–1941, a nastepnie 1944–1945 co najmniej 150 tys [...] Laczne straty smiertelne ludnosci polskiej pod okupacja niemiecka oblicza sie obecnie na ok. 2 770 000. [...] Do tych strat nalezy doliczyc ponad 100 tys. Polaków pomordowanych w latach 1942–1945 przez nacjonalistów ukrainskich (w tym na samym Wolyniu ok. 60 tys. osób [...] Liczba Zydów i Polaków zydowskiego pochodzenia, obywateli II Rzeczypospolitej, zamordowanych przez Niemców siega 2,7– 2,9 mln osób." Translation: "It must be assumed losses of at least 150.000 people during the Soviet occupation from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1944 to 1945 [...] The total fatalities of the Polish population under the German occupation are now estimated at 2,770,000. [...] To these losses should be added more than 100,000 Poles murdered in the years 1942–1945 by Ukrainian nationalists (including about 60,000 in Volhynia [...] The number of Jews and Poles of Jewish ethnicity, citizens of the Second Polish Republic, murdered by the Germans amounts to 2.7–2.9 million people." – Waldemar Grabowski. German and Soviet occupation. Fundamental issues.: "Straty ludnosci panstwa polskiego narodowosci ukrainskiej sa trudne do wyliczenia," Translation: "The losses of ethnic Poles of Ukrainian nationality are difficult to calculate." Note: Polish losses amount to 11.3% of the 24.4 million ethnic Poles in prewar Poland and about 90 percent of the 3.3 million Jews of prewar times. The IPN figures do not include losses among Polish citizens of Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnicity. https://web.archive.org/web/20120323161233/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm
^Reitlinger, Gerald (1953). The Final Solution. The Attempt to Exterminate the Jews of Europe, 1939–1945. New York City: Beechhurst Press.
^Early efforts by scholars to determine the number of Jews murdered by the Nazis were limited by a lack of access to pertinent records. The genocide seldom entered Western discourse, both due to ignorance and to the Cold-War politics which made West Germany a new ally of the United States.The first significant work on the subject published in English was Gerald Reitlinger's Final Solution (1953), which, relying almost exclusively on German documentation, estimated 4.9 million dead. This figure is now considered extremely conservative. Raul Hilberg's 1961 The Destruction of the European Jews became a classic in the field of Holocaust literature and made the genocide of the Jews known to the wider public, Hilberg estimated its victims to be 5.1 million lives, or 4.9 – 5.4 million broadly construed. The trial of Adolph Eichmann further raised awareness of the genocide, Eichmann also provided documentation and testimony which revised the number of the dead.The first work to arrive at a figure comparable to modern estimates was Lucy Dawidowicz's The War Against the Jews, published in 1975, the book provided detailed listings by country of the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust which are still used as a reference in modern Holocaust studies. Dawidowicz researched birth and death records in many cities of prewar Europe to come up with a death toll of 5,933,900 Jews. After the opening of Soviet records, scholarship arrived at a death toll of about 6 million Jews. Gutman and Rozett's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust was published in 1990 and estimated slightly over 5.9 million Jews were murdered.Wolfgang Benz's The Holocaust: A German Historian Examines the Genocide, published 1995, gave a toll of 6.2 million.
^Davies, Norman (2012). God's Playground [Boze igrzysko]. Otwarte (publishing). p. 956. ISBN8324015566. Polish edition, second volume. "To, co robili Sowieci, bylo szczególnie mylace. Same liczby bylSacramentsie wiarygodne, ale pozbawione komentarza, sprytnie ukrywaly fakt, ze ofiary w przewazajacej liczbie nie byly Rosjanami, ze owe miliony obejmowaly ofiary nie tylko Hitlera, ale i Stalina, oraz ze wsród ludnosci cywilnej najwieksze grupy stanowili Ukraincy, Polacy, Bialorusini i Zydzi. Translation: The Soviet methods were particularly misleading. The numbers were correct, but the victims were overwhelmingly not Russian, and came from either one of the two regimes."
^Zemskov, Viktor N. (2012). "О масштабах людских потерь CCCР в Великой Отечественной Войне" [The extent of human losses USSR in the Great Patriotic War]. Military Historical Archive (Военно-исторический архив) (in Russian). 9: 59–71 – via Demoskop Weehly vol. 559–560 (2013) Excludes:
Excludes the 2,500,000 million Jewish civilians killed in Soviet Territories-(see: Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. 1988. ISBN978-0-688-12364-2)
30,000 to 35,000 Roma killed in Porajmos-(see: Niewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN0-231-11200-9. "European Romani (Gypsy) Population". The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 8, 2016..
Deaths caused by the result of direct, intentional actions of violence 7,420,379-(see: ????????? 1995, pp. 124–131 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin based this figure on sources published in the Soviet era.)
Deaths of forced laborers in Germany 2,164,313-(see: Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–131.)
Deaths due to famine and disease in the occupied regions 4,100,000-(see: Евдокимов 1995, pp. 124–131 The Russian Academy of Science article by M.V. Philimoshin estimated 6% of the population in the occupied regions died due to war related famine and disease.)
Excludes:
Excludes the 2,500,000 million Jewish civilians killed in Soviet Territories-(see: Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of the Holocaust. 1988. ISBN978-0-688-12364-2)
30,000 to 35,000 Roma killed in Porajmos-(see: Niewyk, Donald L. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. p. 422. ISBN0-231-11200-9. "European Romani (Gypsy) Population". The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 8, 2016.
^Richard Overy, Russia's War (1997): "an estimated 500,000 Soviet citizens died from German bomb attacks."
^Voglis, Polymeris (2006). "Surviving Hunger: Life in the Cities and the Countryside during the Occupation". In Gildea, Robert; Wievorka, Olivier; Warring, Anette. Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: Daily Life in Occupied Europe. Oxford: Berg. pp. 16–41. ISBN978-1-84520-181-4.
^Baranowski, Shelley (2010). Nazi empire : German colonialism and imperialism from Bismarck to Hitler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN978-0-521-67408-9.
^Hodapp, Christopher (2013). Freemasonry for Dummies, 2. Edition. Wiley Publishing Inc. ISBN1118412087.
^Peter Hoffmann "The History of the German Resistance, 1933–1945"p.xiii
^The number of Slovenes estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation (not including those killed by Slovene collaboration forces and other Nazi allies) is estimated between 20,000 and 25,000 people. This number only includes civilians: Slovene partisan POWs who died and resistance fighters killed in action are not included (their number is estimated at 27,000). These numbers however include only Slovenes from present-day Slovenia: it does not include Carinthian Slovene victims, nor Slovene victims from areas in present-day Italy and Croatia. These numbers are result of a 10-year-long research by the Institute for Contemporary History (Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino) from Ljubljana, Slovenia. The partial results of the research have been released in 2008 in the volume Žrtve vojne in revolucije v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: Institute for Contemporary History, 2008), and officially presented at the Slovenian National Council
http://www.ds-rs.si/sites/default/files/dokumenti/zbornik_zrtve_vojne_in_revolucije.pdf
^van der Zee, Henri A (1998), The Hunger Winter: Occupied Holland 1944–1945, University of Nebraska Press, pp. 304–5.
^Pike, David Wingeate. Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, the horror on the Danube; Editorial: Routledge Chapman & Hall ISBN978-0-415-22780-3. London, 2000.
^The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd., p. 108.
^Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.
^Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993). "Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" (PDF). American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1022. doi:10.2307/2166597. JSTOR 2166597。
^ abLacina, Bethany (September 2009). "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946-2008, Version 3.0" (PDF). Peace Research Institute Oslo. pp. 359–362. 2019年8月30日閲覧。
^ abValentino (2005) Final solutions Table 2 found at pg. 75.
^ abHanna Arendt Center in Sofia, with Dinyu Sharlanov and Venelin I. Ganev. Crimes Committed by the Communist Regime in Bulgaria. Country report. "Crimes of the Communist Regimes" Conference. February 24–26, 2010, Prague.
^ abШарланов, Диню. История на комунизма в Булгария: Комунизирането на Булгариия. Сиела, 2009; ISBN978-954-28-0543-4.
^Heuveline, Patrick (2001). "The Demographic Analysis of Mortality in Cambodia." In Forced Migration and Mortality, eds. Holly E. Reed and Charles B. Keely. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
^Marek Sliwinski, Le Génocide Khmer Rouge: Une Analyse Démographique (L’Harmattan, 1995).
^Banister, Judith, and Paige Johnson (1993). "After the Nightmare: The Population of Cambodia." In Genocide and Democracy in Cambodia: The Khmer Rouge, the United Nations and the International Community, ed. Ben Kiernan. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies.
^Campbell, Gwyn (October 1991). “The state and pre-colonial demographic history: the case of nineteenth century Madagascar”. Journal of African History. 23 (3): 415–45.
^朝鮮の人口推移：1392年(554万人)、1522年(1061万人)、1591年(1409万人)、1637年(1063万人)、1822年(1621万人)、1910年(1742万人)。Estimated data are from Kwon and Sin, "Choson." Composite recorded data are from the Hogu ch'ongsu (1789); Choson Wangjo Sillok entries and T'akchiji entries are from the Seoul National University edition of the Hogu ch'ongsu; records from 1864 to 1924 are from Zensho, Chosen. The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Mar., 2008), pp. 244-282
^ abDillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. p. 379. ISBN978-0-7007-0439-2。 from J.B. Parsons, The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty (University of Arizona Press), 1970.
^ abA January 26, 2003 The New York Times article by John F. Burns similarly states "the number of those 'disappeared' into the hands of the secret police, never to be heard from again, could be 200,000." Noting that the Iran–Iraq War cost approximately 800,000 lives on both sides and that—while "surely a gross exaggeration"—Iraq estimated there were 100,000 deaths resulting from U.S. bombing in the Gulf War, Burns concludes: "A million dead Iraqis, in war and through terror, may not be far from the mark." See Burns, John F. (26 January 2003). “How Many People Has Hussein Killed?”. The New York Times. 2016年12月4日閲覧. Also writing in The New York Times, Dexter Filkins appeared to echo but misrepresent Burns's remark on October 7, 2007: "[Saddam] murdered as many as a million of his people, many with poison gas. ... His unprovoked invasion of Iran is estimated to have left another million people dead." See Filkins, Dexter (7 October 2007). “Regrets Only?”. The New York Times. 2016年12月4日閲覧. In turn, Arthur L. Herman accused Saddam of "kill[ing] as many as two million of his own people" in Commentary on July 1, 2008. See Herman, Arthur L. (1 July 2008). “Why Iraq Was Inevitable”. Commentary. 2016年12月4日閲覧.
^Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A history of Vietnam: from Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-29622-2
^Ullman, Richard H. (April 1978). “Human Rights and Economic Power: The United States Versus Idi Amin”. Foreign Affairs. 2015年10月4日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ. 2019年11月14日閲覧. The most conservative estimates by informed observers hold that President Idi Amin Dada and the terror squads operating under his loose direction have killed 100,000 Ugandans in the seven years he has held power.
^ abEric Paul Roorda (1996). “Genocide next door: the Good Neighbor policy, the Trujillo regime, and the Haitian massacre of 1937”. Diplomatic History. 20 (3): 301–19. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00269.x.
^ abGreene, Anne (2001). “Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71”. In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.). Dominican Republic and Haiti. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 288–289. ISBN978-0-8444-1044-9. ISSN1057-5294. LCCN2001023524. OCLC46321054. President Duvalier reigned supreme for fourteen years. Even in Haiti, where dictators had been the norm, François Duvalier gave new meaning to the term. Duvalier and his henchmen killed between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians. The victims were not only political opponents, but women, whole families, whole towns. . . . In April 1963, when an army officer suspected of trying to kidnap two of Duvalier's children took refuge in the Dominican chancery, Duvalier ordered the Presidential Guard to occupy the building. The Dominicans were incensed; President Juan Bosch Gaviño ordered troops to the border and threatened to invade. However, the Dominican commanders were reluctant to enter Haiti, and Bosch was obliged to turn to the [Organization of American States] to settle the matter.
