据阿伯丁大学Philip Hannaford教授领导的the Royal College of GPs Oral Contraception Study研究小组在英国医学期刊(British Medical Journal)上发表的最新研究成果:经过40年的研究,统计了超过46,000个妇女进行对比试验,发现每100,000服用避孕药的妇女中,比其他避孕方式的平均少死亡52人
[80],服用避孕药的妇女预期死亡率比不服用者低12%[67]。这个研究基于旧式的避孕药,因此新式(激素含量更低)的避孕药可能没有这个“功效”。
^ 4.04.14.2Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53,297 women with breast cancer and 100,239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 1996, 347 (9017): 1713–27. PMID 8656904. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5.
^Baillargeon, J.-P. Association between the Current Use of Low-Dose Oral Contraceptives and Cardiovascular Arterial Disease: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2005, 90 (7): 3863–70. PMID 15814774. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1958.
^IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Hormonal contraceptives, progestogens only. Hormonal contraception and post-menopausal hormonal therapy; IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, Volume 72. Lyon: IARC Press. 1999: 339–397 [2010-03-15]. ISBN 92-832-1272-X. (原始内容存档于2006-09-28).
^ 20.020.120.220.3Pincus G, Bialy G. Drugs Used in Control of Reproduction. Adv Pharmacol. 1964, 3: 285–313. PMID 14232795. doi:10.1016/S1054-3589(08)61115-1. The original observation of Makepeace et al. (1937) that progesterone inhibited ovulation in the rabbit was substantiated by Pincus and Chang (1953). In women, 300 mg of progesterone per day taken orally resulted in ovulation inhibition in 80% of cases (Pincus, 1956). The high dosage and frequent incidence of breakthrough bleeding limited the practical application of the method. Subsequently, the utilization of potent 19-norsteroids, which could be given orally, opened the field to practical oral contraception.
^Rock J, Garcia CR, Pincus G. Synthetic progestins in the normal human menstrual cycle. Recent Progress in Hormone Research. 1957, 13: 323–39; discussion 339–46. PMID 13477811.
^ 39.039.139.2Pincus, Gregory. Progestational Agents and the Control of Fertility 17: 307–324. 1959. ISSN 0083-6729. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(08)60274-5. Ishikawa et al. (1957) employing the same regime of progesterone administration also observed suppression of ovulation in a proportion of the cases taken to laparotomy. Although sexual intercourse was practised freely by the subjects of our experiments and those of Ishikawa el al., no pregnancies occurred. Since ovulation presumably took place in a proportion of cycles, the lack of any pregnancies may be due to chance, but Ishikawa et al. (1957) have presented data indicating that in women receiving oral progesterone the cervical mucus becomes impenetrable to sperm.
^ 40.040.1Diczfalusy E. Probable mode of action of oral contraceptives. Br Med J. December 1965, 2 (5475): 1394–9. PMC 1847181. PMID 5848673. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5475.1394. At the Fifth International Conference on Planned Parenthood in Tokyo, Pincus (1955) reported an ovulation inhibition by progesterone or norethynodrel1 taken orally by women. This report indicated the beginning of a new era in the history of contraception. [...] That the cervical mucus might be one of the principal sites of action was suggested by the first studies of Pincus (1956, 1959) and of Ishikawa et al. (1957). These investigators found that no pregnancies occurred in women treated orally with large doses of progesterone, though ovulation was inhibited only in some 70% of the cases studied. [...] The mechanism of protection in this method—and probably in that of Pincus (1956) and of Ishikawa et al. (1957)—must involve an effect on the cervical mucus and/or endometrium and Fallopian tubes.
^ 41.041.1Annette B. Ramírez de Arellano; Conrad Seipp. Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico. University of North Carolina Press. 10 October 2017: 107– [2019-07-23]. ISBN 978-1-4696-4001-3. (原始内容存档于2021-06-25). [...] Still, neither of the two researchers was completely satisfied with the results. Progesterone tended to cause "premature menses," or breakthrough bleeding, in approximately 20 percent of the cycles, an occurrence that disturbed the patients and worried Rock.17 In addition, Pincus was concerned about the failure to inhibit ovulation in all the cases. Only large doses of orally administered progesterone could insure the suppression of ovulation, and these doses were expensive. The mass use of this regimen as a birth control method was thus seriously imperiled.18 [...]
^ 43.043.1Rock J, García CR. Observed effects of 19-nor steroids on ovulation and menstruation. Proceedings of a Symposium on 19-Nor Progestational Steroids. Chicago: Searle Research Laboratories. 1957: 14–31. OCLC 935295.
^Ramírez de Arellano AB, Seipp C. Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1983. ISBN 978-0-8078-1544-1.
^Rice-Wray E. Field Study with Enovid as a Contraceptive Agent. Proceedings of a Symposium on 19-Nor Progestational Steroids. Chicago: Searle Research Laboratorie. 1957: 78–85. OCLC 935295.
^Tyler ET, Olson HJ. Fertility promoting and inhibiting effects of new steroid hormonal substances. Journal of the American Medical Association. April 1959, 169 (16): 1843–54. PMID 13640942. doi:10.1001/jama.1959.03000330015003.
^Winter IC. Summary. Proceedings of a Symposium on 19-Nor Progestational Steroids. Chicago: Searle Research Laboratories. 1957: 120–122. OCLC 935295.
^Skouby, SO. The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care (2004) "Contraceptive use and behavior in the 21st century: a comprehensive study across five European countries." 9(2):57-68
^ 62.062.1Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. Oral Contraception. A Clinical Guide for Contraception 4th. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2005: 21–138. ISBN 0-781-76488-2.
^Glasier, Anna. Contraception. DeGroot, Leslie J.; Jameson, J. Larry (eds.) (编). Endocrinology 5th. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. 2006: 2993–3003. ISBN 0-7216-0376-9.
^ 65.065.1Rivera R, Yacobson I, Grimes D. The mechanism of action of hormonal contraceptives and intrauterine contraceptive devices. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999, 181 (5 Pt 1): 1263–9. PMID 10561657. doi:10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70120-1.
^Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: further results. Contraception. 1996, 54 (3 Suppl): 1S–106S. PMID 8899264.
^Plu-Bureau G, Lê M. Oral contraception and the risk of breast cancer. Contracept Fertil Sex. 1997, 25 (4): 301–5. PMID 9229520. - pooled re-analysis of original data from 54 studies representing about 90% of the published epidemiological studies, prior to introduction of third generation pills.
^Hatcher & Nelson. Combined Hormonal Contraceptive Methods. Hatcher, Robert D. (编). Contraceptive technology 18th. New York: Ardent Media, Inc. 2004: 403,432,434. ISBN 0-9664902-5-8.
^Darney, Philip D.; Speroff, Leon. A clinical guide for contraception 4th. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2005: 72. ISBN 0-7817-6488-2.
^Bast RC, Brewer M, Zou C; et al. Prevention and early detection of ovarian cancer: mission impossible?. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2007, 174: 91–100. PMID 17302189. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-37696-5_9. 引文格式1维护:显式使用等标签 (link)
^World Health Organization. Reproductive Health and Research. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use Third. Geneva. 2017-01-12: 150. ISBN 9789241565400. OCLC 985676200.
^Holck, Susan. Contraceptive Safety. Special Challenges in Third World Women's Health. 1989 Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association. [2006-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2017-11-08).