《美國憲法》第二修正案(英語:Second Amendment to the United States Constitution),簡稱「第二修正案」(Amendment II),保障美國人民持有與攜帶武器的權利。該修正案於1791年12月15日與《權利法案》中的其他九項條文一併獲得批准,成為《美國憲法》的重要組成部分。其核心在於確認個人擁有武器的合法性,亦即公民享有正當防衛的公民權利[1][2][3][4],並與美國建國初期對公民與政府權力平衡的理念密切相關。自第二修正案生效以來,圍繞其解釋與適用的爭論從未間斷。支持管制槍械的團體與主張槍枝權利的組織之間分歧鮮明,而司法系統也持續在個人權利與公共安全之間尋求平衡。
2016年卡埃塔諾訴麻薩諸塞州案(英语:Caetano v. Massachusetts)(Caetano v. Massachusetts)則進一步說明,第二修正案保護的對象不限於18世紀已有的武器,而是涵蓋所有「可攜式武器」。法院指出,這一權利不僅限於戰爭有用的武器,也涵蓋民間自衛所需之器具。2022年,紐約步槍與手槍協會訴布魯恩案(New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen)更進一步確認公眾攜槍的憲法權利。該案裁定,政府對於攜槍行為的限制須符合歷史與傳統,並提出一種全新的審查標準,要求限制措施須有歷史上的類比或原則依據。2024年美國訴拉希米案(英语:United States v. Rahimi)(United States v. Rahimi)在延續此一標準的同時,對其進行了修正,強調應以類似案例及一般性原則為基礎,而非機械性地尋求歷史上的精確對照[19]。
原文內容及注解
《美國憲法》第二修正案的原文內容在歷史上存在多個版本,其間主要差異集中於標點符號與大小寫的使用上。這些細微的差異並非僅屬文字層面,實際上引發了長期以來有關該修正案意涵的爭議,尤其是其中所謂「前言條款」(prefatory clause)的法律效力與詮釋價值,更成為法院審理相關案件時的重要爭點[20][21]。根據美國國家檔案館保存的最終版本,該文本由當時的國會書記官威廉·蘭伯特(William Lambert)手寫完成[22],屬於國會通過的正式文本,也即是德拉瓦州所批准的版本[23][24][25]。這個版本同時也被聯邦最高法院在2008年哥倫比亞特區訴海勒案(District of Columbia v. Heller)中採納,作為法律判決的依據[26]。其全文如下:
英文
中譯
"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."
Whereas the late King James the Second by the Assistance of diverse evil Councillors Judges and Ministers employed by him did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant Religion and the Laws and Liberties of this Kingdom (list of grievances including) ... by causing several good Subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when Papists were both Armed and employed contrary to Law, (Recital regarding the change of monarch) ... thereupon the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons pursuant to their respective Letters and Elections being now assembled in a full and free Representative of this Nation taking into their most serious Consideration the best means for attaining the Ends aforesaid Doe in the first place (as their Ancestors in like Case have usually done) for the Vindicating and Asserting their ancient Rights and Liberties, Declare (list of rights including) ... That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defense suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law.
此條款被廣泛視為美國憲法第二修正案的思想起源之一。“新教臣民得依其地位與法律許可,持有武器以自衛”這句話常被獨立引用作為主張個人持槍權的依據,此處強調,人民的武裝權利非創造於當下,而是對詹姆士二世踐踏「古老權利」的回應[35]。美國最高法院於2008年哥倫比亞特區訴海勒案(英语:District of Columbia v. Heller)(District of Columbia v. Heller)中也援引此歷史脈絡,表示當時的英國持槍權是一項個人權利,並非限於民兵服務範圍之內,亦非由王權所賦予的新權利,而是對抗君王壓制之保障。然而,也有部分學者認為,有關持槍權的這段表述常被斷章取義引用,僅呈現如上句子,而未提供完整背景。從全文來看,此法案的真正意圖在於恢復新教徒原有的權利,反對國王在未經議會同意的情況下解除他們的武裝,《權利法案》中所述的持槍權實則源自人民作為公民所應履行的武裝義務,而非單純出於個人自由的需要。儘管如此,《權利法案》仍在條文中加入「符合法律規定」的限制,表明其並未凌駕於其他法律條款之上。這項限制此前便已存在,例如對於狩獵用途武器的持有限制,而法案之後的法律也可明示或默示地修改其內涵。因此,《權利法案》雖有強烈的歷史與象徵意義,但其法律效力在議會主權下仍屬可調整範圍。
1757年,英國議會通過《1757年民兵法案》(Militia Act 1757),全名為《為更妥善地組織大不列顛英格蘭各郡的民兵部隊之法案》(An Act for better ordering of the militia forces in the several counties of that part of Great Britain called England)。此法案的開宗明義指出:「一支良好組織且紀律嚴明的民兵部隊,對本王國的安全、和平與繁榮至關重要」(a well-ordered and well-disciplined militia is essentially necessary to the safety, peace and prosperity of this kingdom)。該法案認為當時既有的民兵規定缺乏效果,並力圖予以改進。此舉不僅是對英格蘭國防結構的一項調整,也在思想與制度層面對後來北美殖民地的政治法律發展,尤其是《美國憲法》第二修正案的形成,產生了深遠影響。
《1757年民兵法案》的核心精神在於賦予國家對地方武裝力量的規範權限,建立中央統籌、分區組織的民兵體制,其主張強調民兵需受紀律訓練並維持有序運作。這種理念隨著殖民地時期英國對美洲的管轄,也成為殖民地居民所熟悉的制度背景。1775年,美國獨立戰爭爆發之前,殖民地人員開始自行發展符合地方需要的軍事訓練方式。蒂摩西·皮克林受《1757年民兵法案》的啟發,撰寫了《簡便民兵訓練計畫》(An Easy Plan of Discipline for a Militia),內容即是對英國法案的在地化調整[42]。此書雖因印製地點塞勒姆局勢緊張而發行受阻,但皮克林仍將計畫書提交予喬治·華盛頓參閱[43]。1776年5月1日,馬薩諸塞灣殖民地議會正式決議:「皮克林對《1757年法案》的修訂版本,將作為本地民兵的訓練規範」(That Pickering's discipline, a modification of the 1757 act, be the discipline of their Militia)[44]。此決定標誌著英國立法精神在美洲殖民地的具體承襲與應用。即使身處獨立戰爭前夜,殖民地仍藉由對民兵法案的調整來鞏固防務與軍事紀律。然而,隨著戰爭進程的推移,聯邦軍事體系的需求愈加明確,原有以地方自主為主的民兵訓練制度漸顯不足。1779年3月29日,大陸軍引入普魯士軍官弗里德里奇·威廉·冯·斯图本所設計的軍事條例《美利堅合眾國部隊秩序與紀律條例》(Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States),取代皮克林系統成為軍隊的正式訓練綱領[45]。此舉標誌著美國軍事體系從殖民地時代的民兵模式向現代化正規部隊訓練邁進[46]。
1791年,《美國憲法》第二修正案經各州批准正式成文,其中一條條文為:「一支良好規訓的民兵,對於自由州的安全為必要,人民持有與攜帶武器的權利不得侵犯」(A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.)。其中「良好規訓的民兵」之概念,無疑與英國《1757年民兵法案》的原始精神遙相呼應。1792年5月8日,美國國會通過《民兵法案(英语:Militia Acts of 1792)》(Militia Acts of 1792),其中對全國民兵制度加以統一規範。此後,除極少數例外,美國全體民兵之組訓皆以斯圖本的《條例》為準繩,代替英國與殖民時代的制度傳統。《1757年民兵法案》不僅影響了北美殖民地的民兵制度與軍事訓練模式,更間接塑造了美國獨立後憲政秩序中對武裝權與國防體制的設想。該法案提出之「安全與秩序需仰賴有紀律的民兵」觀念,成為美國第二修正案立法意圖的重要參照點。
近代學者托馬斯·麥卡菲(Thomas B. McAffee)與麥可·昆蘭(Michael J. Quinlan)指出,詹姆斯·麥迪遜在起草第二修正案時並未“創造”持械權,此權利早已存在於普通法與早期州憲法中。然而,歷史學家傑克·諾曼·拉科夫(英语:Jack N. Rakove)則認為,麥迪遜設計此修正案的目的,主要是向溫和的反聯邦派保證,民兵將不會被解除武裝。關於持械權是否包括對抗不公政權的權利,則存在爭議。布萊克斯通於其《英格蘭法律釋義》中曾寫道:「自然抵抗與自我保全之權利,僅在社會與法律無力遏止壓迫之暴力時,作為最後手段行使」(the natural right of resistance and self preservation, to be used only as a last resort, exercisable when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression)。有論者認為,權利法案起草者在設計第二修正案時,不僅意圖平衡政治權力,亦企圖在人民、各州與聯邦之間維持軍事權力之均衡,讓民兵作為對聯邦常備軍之制衡力量,同時保障人民權利免於集中權力所可能引發之專斷。亞歷山大·漢彌爾頓於1788年所撰之《關於民兵(英语:Federalist No. 46)》(Concerning the Militia)一文中指出:
自1789年起,美國便圍繞著「人民是否應對抗政府暴政」展開辯論。反聯邦主義者主張人民有此權利,而聯邦派則擔憂人民可能淪為暴民,尤其在當時法國大革命日益激進的背景下。在《美國憲法》批准過程中的普遍憂慮之一,若國會通過禁止各州武裝公民或公民自行武裝的法案,聯邦政府可能發動軍事行動接管各州。雖然根據《美國憲法》第一條第八款,聯邦政府取得了武裝與規訓民兵之權,有人認為州政府因此喪失了武裝其公民之能力,但個人持械權利則透過1792年與1795年的《民兵法案(英语:Militia Acts of 1792)》獲得保留與進一步強化。
這是美國憲政史上首次有「持有武器之權」(right to bear arms)的語句出現在法律條文之中。賓夕法尼亞的背景尤為特殊,該地原為一個由反對持武的貴格會信徒主導的殖民地。殖民地創立者威廉·佩恩的構想是一場「神聖實驗」,意圖建立一個無需武裝維持行政、不依靠宣誓施行司法的社會。然而,來自賓夕法尼亞西部的非貴格會居民對無法組織自衛表示強烈不滿。在美國革命期間,主張民兵制度的一派逐漸佔據當地政府主導地位,透過政治手段排除貴格會議員,從而主導憲法會議,明確賦予人民武裝防衛的權利,並為此建立民兵。
在2008年及2010年,美國聯邦最高法院分別做出了兩個與本修正案有關的指標性判決。在哥倫比亞特區訴黑勒案(英语:District of Columbia v. Heller)(District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U.S. 570 (2008))中,聯邦最高法院判決認為,第二修正案保障個人擁有槍枝的權利,不論該人是否屬於民兵皆然,[64][65]並且可以基於合法的目的使用該等武器,諸如在屋內自我防衛。在麥克唐納訴芝加哥案(McDonald v. Chicago, 561 U.S. 3025 (2010))中,法院判決第二修正案不僅能約束聯邦政府,對於州政府和地方政府同樣具有拘束力[66]。
^Campbell, Thomas. Separation of Powers in Practice. Stanford University Press. 2004: 184 [June 27, 2013]. ISBN 978-0804750271. The Bill of Rights, as passed by both houses of Congress, contained twelve articles. The first two articles failed of ratification, and thus it was article four which ultimately became the Second Amendment. The 'official copy of the Joint Resolution of Congress proposing articles to the Legislatures of the States,' as exhibited at the National Archives Building contains all three commas. However, to facilitate ratification of the proposed amendments, 13 copies were made by hand for forwarding to the states. At least one of these documents (viewed at the National Archives Building) omitted the final comma. In conveying notice of ratification, some states (e.g. Delaware) merely attached the official state action to the copy received. Other states (e.g. New York) recopied the text of the amendments in its notification. The New York ratification document of March 27, 1790, contains only one comma in the fourth article. [quoting a letter by Kent M. Ronhovde, Legislative Attorney for the Library of Congress, c. 1989]
^Second Amendment – Bearing Arms. Gpo.gov. The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation 1992. [July 5, 2013]. (原始内容存档于May 29, 2013).
^Blackstone, William. Commentaries on the Laws of England. 1765. Book 1, Chapter 1. the fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject... is that of having arms for their defence... when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.
^Ely, James W.; Bodenhamer, David J. The Bill of Rights in Modern America. : 89–91.
^Heyman, Steven J. Gun Rights and the Second Amendment. : 253–259. Finally, we should note that (contrary to Kates's assertion), Blackstone nowhere suggests that the right to arms derives from 'the common law'. Instead, this is a right that is secured by 'the constitution', and in particular by the Bill of Rights.
^Merkel and Uviller, pp. 62, 179 ff, 183, 188 ff, 306. "[T]he right to bear arms was articulated as a civic right inextricably linked to the civic obligation to bear arms for the public defense."
^Mencimer, Stephanie. Whitewashing the Second Amendment. 2008 [January 16, 2013]. (原始内容存档于May 31, 2009). the 'well-regulated militias' cited in the Constitution almost certainly referred to state militias that were used to suppress slave insurrections.
^Hardy, p. 1237. "Early Americans wrote of the right in light of three considerations: (1) as auxiliary to a natural right of self-defense; (2) as enabling an armed people to deter undemocratic government; and (3) as enabling the people to organize a militia system."
^"The court held that the second amendment recognized an individual right to possess and carry a firearm unconnected with militia service." Pollock, Earl. The Supreme Court and American Democracy: Case Studies on Judicial Review and Public Policy. Greenwood. 2008: 423. ISBN 978-0-313-36525-6.
^"held that the second amendment protects an individual's right to bear arms," Scaros, Constantinos E. Understanding the Constitution. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 2010: 484. ISBN 978-0-7637-5811-0.
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