商業乗員輸送計画の最初の飛行は当初2017年末までに開始される予定だったが[54]、ボーイングは2016年5月にスターライナーのアトラスV N22ロケットとの統合に問題があったため、最初の有人飛行は2018年に延期されると発表した[55][56]。2016年12月、スペースXも最初の有人飛行を2018年に延期すると発表したが[57][58]、これはクルードラゴンの打ち上げロケットであるファルコン9の発射台の爆発事故でAMOS-6が失われたことを受けてだった[58][59]。ソユーズ計画では2018年以降アメリカ人宇宙飛行士の飛行は予定されていないため、[60]、GAOは懸念を表明し、2017年2月にNASAがさらなる遅延に備えて乗組員のローテーション計画を策定するよう勧告した[61]。ロシアの宇宙メーカーであるエネルギアとのシーローンチをめぐる訴訟の和解後、ボーイングはソユーズ宇宙船の最大5席のオプションを獲得し、NASAはこれをボーイングから購入した[62][63]。NASAは2018年8月にクルードラゴンとスターライナーのパイロットに選ばれた宇宙飛行士を発表し[64][65][66]、2か月後には2019年中のクルードラゴンとスターライナーの実証ミッションの打ち上げを計画した[67][68]。無人のスペースX Demo-1ミッションは2019年3月2日に打ち上げられ、The uncrewed SpaceX Demo-1 mission was launched on 2 March 2019,[69]クルードラゴンはISSにドッキングし、打ち上げから6日後に地球に帰還した[70][71]。しかしながら、このミッションで使用されたカプセルは、2019年4月にスーパー・ドラコエンジンの静的燃焼テスト中に誤って破壊され[72][73][74]、将来のクルードラゴンの飛行の打ち上げがさらに遅れる原因となった[74][75]。スターライナーの緊急脱出システムのテスト失敗により延期されていたボーイング軌道飛行試験とボーイング乗員飛行試験は[76][77]、2019年初頭から中旬の予定から2019年後半に説明もなくさらに延期された[78][79][80]。
^“Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond”. CNN (2004年1月15日). 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “The initial spurt of new funding will be used to begin work on what a "crew exploration vehicle," which O'Keefe said will "look totally different" from the space shuttle. [...] Lunar missions will begin between 2015 and 2020.”
^Dinkin, Sam (2004年10月25日). “Implementing the vision”. The Space Review. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Eleven companies have been selected "to conduct preliminary concept studies for human lunar exploration and the development of the crew exploration vehicle."”
^ ab“Constellation program Lessons Learned; Volume I: Executive Summary”. NASA History Office. pp. 2–3 (2011年5月20日). 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “NASA formed the Constellation Program in 2005 [...] The Initial Capability (IC) comprised elements necessary to service the ISS by 2015 with crew rotations: including the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, the Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle, and the supporting ground and mission infrastructure to enable these missions.”
^“Nasa names new spacecraft 'Orion'”. BBC News (2006年8月23日). 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “The vehicle will be capable of transporting cargo and up to six crew members to and from the International Space Station. It can carry four astronauts for lunar missions.”
^Malik, Tariq (2005年9月19日). “NASA's New Moon Plans: 'Apollo on Steroids'”. Space.com. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “The spacecraft, NASA's Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), could even carry six-astronaut crews to the International Space Station (ISS) or fly automated resupply shipments as needed, NASA chief Michael Griffin said.”
^“NASA's New Launch Systems May Include the Return of the Space Tug”. SpaceRef (2005年8月7日). 2013年2月2日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2024年7月23日閲覧。 “Following the Columbia accident in February 2003, planning for the OSP was placed on hold. Eventually, the OSP would be superseded-or morphed into-the requirements for what eventually became the CEV.”
^Dinerman, Taylor (2005年1月31日). “What do we do with the ISS?”. The Space Review. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “The big question for the next NASA administrator will be whether he going to reverse the decision to delete the ISS service role from the Crew Exploration Vehicle's mission. [...] The CEV was sold at least partly on the basis that it would replace the planned Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was supposed to be a true multipurpose manned spacecraft.”
^Sunseri, Gina (2009年10月22日). “Augustine Commission: NASA's Plans 'Unsustainable'”. ABC News. 2009年10月26日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “To get to the moon and then eventually go on to Mars will take much more money and technology than the U.S. space program has now, according to a report released today by an independent panel convened, at White House request [...] Keep Ares and Orion going -- but recognize they probably won't be ready for regular use until 2017. [...] To do all this, the panel said NASA would need substantially more funding -- an additional $3 billion annually starting next year.”
^ abc“US politicians cement a new philosophy for Nasa”. BBC News (2010年9月30日). 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “It authorises $1.3bn over the next three years for commercial companies to begin taxiing crew to the International Space Station (ISS). [...] It brings to an end the Bush-era Constellation programme which had set the agency the task of going back to the Moon.”
^Malik, Tariq (2010年4月6日). “NASA's New Asteroid Mission Could Save the Planet”. Space.com. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “He pledged to revive the Orion spacecraft, initially cancelled along the rest of NASA's Constellation program building new rockets and spacecraft. Now [it will play a role] in deep space missions, Obama said.”
^ ab“NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil”. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (2012年12月10日). 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “...the certification products contracts (CPC) [will ensure] crew transportation systems will meet agency safety requirements and standards to launch American astronauts to the International Space Station from the United States, ending the agency's reliance on Russia for these transportation services. [...] This includes data that will result in developing engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems design.”
^Reichhardt 2018, "A pair of privately owned spaceships, Boeing's Starliner and SpaceX's Crew Dragon, are set to make their debut within the next few months [...] ending NASA's post-space-shuttle reliance on the Soyuz to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station."
^Foust, Jeff (2011年2月4日). “CCDev awardees one year later: where are they now?”. NewSpace Journal. 2013年6月5日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “NASA announced a set of Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) awards, using $50 million they agency got as part of a larger grant of stimulus funding.”
^Rhian, Jason (2010年12月20日). “Numerous Companies Propose Possible 'Space Taxis'”. Universe Today. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “With NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev 2, and the encouragement of commercial space firms to produce their own vehicles, the number of potential 'space-taxis' has swelled, with virtually every established and up-and-coming space company either producing – or proposing one.”
^ abMoskowitz, Clara (2011年4月28日). “Four Companies at Forefront of Commercial Space Race”. Space.com. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Four private companies are the leaders in the effort to build commercial spaceships to carry astronauts to low-Earth orbit and the International Space Station after the space shuttles retire. NASA recently handed out the second wave of contracts in its Commercial Crew Development program...”
^Sauser, Brittany (2011年4月22日). “Private Spacecrafts to Carry Humans Get NASA Funding”. MIT Technology Review. 2019年12月19日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), which currently has a contract to carry cargo to the International Space Station, will receive $75 million to make its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon space capsule ready for humans...”
^ abClark, Stephen (2011年4月25日). “Four firms plan to get the most out of NASA investment”. Spaceflight Now. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Boeing received the largest Commercial Crew Development award, an agreement valued at $92.3 million, to finish the preliminary design of the CST-100 capsule [...] Sierra Nevada received $20 million in the first CCDev competition in February 2010, using that funding to develop manufacturing tooling, fire a Dream Chaser maneuvering engine and deliver parts of a structural mock-up of the spacecraft.”
^ abAtkinson, Nancy (2012年8月3日). “NASA Announces Winners in Commercial Crew Funding; Which Company Will Get to Space First?”. Universe Today. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “NASA announced today the winners of the third round of commercial crew development funding, called the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap). [...] NASA said these awards will enable a launch of astronauts from U.S. soil in the next five years. [...] each company negotiated how much work they could get done in the 21-month period that this award covers.”
^Boyle, Alan (2012年8月3日). “NASA announces $1.1 billion in support for a trio of spaceships”. NBC News. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “NASA has committed $1.1 billion over the next 21 months to support spaceship development efforts by the Boeing Co., SpaceX and Sierra Nevada Corp., with the aim of having American astronauts flying once more on American spacecraft within five years.”
^ abHardwood, William (2012年8月3日). “NASA awards manned-spacecraft contracts”. CNET. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “SpaceX was awarded a $440 million contract [...] Boeing won a contract valued at $460 million [...] Nevada was awarded $212.5 million [...] The CCiCap contracts will run between now and May 31, 2014”
^Malik, Tariq (2012年8月3日). “NASA awards $1.1 billion to develop three commercial space taxis”. collectSPACE. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Also not included in this latest round of funding was Blue Origin of Kent., Wash., a company owned by billionaire Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos that is developing private spacecraft for suborbital and orbital flights. The company did receive a NASA funding award in 2011 for its orbital crew vehicle, but wasn't among the seven vying for a spot in the CCiCap round, NASA officials said.”
^Foust, Jeff (2016年12月18日). “Bezos Investment in Blue Origin Exceeds $500 Million”. Space News. 2016年12月18日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “"We got $25 million from the NASA commercial crew program, and that represents less than 5 percent of what our founder has put into the company," Alexander said. That would mean Bezos' investment in Blue Origin is at least $500 million.”
^ abcBoyle, Alan (2013年11月19日). “NASA outlines the final steps in plan for next manned spaceships”. NBC News. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “NASA expects the final phase of the competition — known as the Commercial Crew Transport Capability program, or CCtCAP — to result in a fleet of commercial spacecraft that are certified to transport crew by 2017. [...] Those same three companies have already been granted about $10 million each for Phase 1 of the CCtCAP certification process, which focuses on flight safety and performance requirements. [...] NASA said applications for Phase 2 funding should be submitted by Jan. 22.”
^ abGrondin, Yves-A. (2013年8月5日). “NASA Outlines its Plans for Commercial Crew Certification”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “...NASA outlined the next phase of its strategy to enable the certification of commercial crew transportation systems to and from the International Space Station (ISS). [...] Phase 1 of the certification strategy, the Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase, was awarded last December to SpaceX, SNC and Boeing for amounts that did not exceed $10 million per company.”
^Rutkin, Aviva (2014年1月27日). “Mini space shuttle gears up to chase astronaut dreams”. New Scientist. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “Engineers at Sierra Nevada Corporation have announced that the Dream Chaser will make its first orbital flight on 1 November 2016. The Dream Chaser will launch attached to an Atlas V rocket...”
^Atkinson, Nancy (2014年1月23日). “Sierra Nevada Dreamchaser Will Launch on First Orbital Flight Test in November 2016”. Universe Today. 2019年3月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年3月8日閲覧。 “"Today we're very proud to announce that we have now formally negotiated our orbital spaceflight," said Mark Sirangelo, the head of Sierra Nevada Space Systems. "We have acquired an Atlas V rocket and established a launch date of November 1, 2016...”
^Dean, James (2014年9月26日). “Sierra Nevada files protest over NASA crew contract”. Florida Today. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada Corp. has protested NASA's award of contracts worth up to $6.8 billion to Boeing and SpaceX to fly astronauts to the International Space Station. The U.S. Government Accountability Office must rule on the legal challenge by Jan. 5. [...] Sierra Nevada cited "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."”
^Keeney, Laura (2014年10月3日). “So Sierra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?”. The Denver Post. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Space Systems filed the formal protest with the U.S. Government Accountability Office on Sept. 26 over rejection of its bid for NASA's commercial crew contract to shuttle astronauts to the space station.”
^ abDean, James (2014年10月22日). “Judge: NASA can move forward with Boeing, SpaceX”. USA Today. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “A judge Tuesday allowed NASA to move forward with new contracts to develop private space taxis despite a legal challenge to the deals worth up to $6.8 billion. [...] NASA claimed it "best serves the United States" to enable the commercial crew systems as soon as possible, and that delays to flights planned by 2017 would put the International Space Station at risk.”
^Norris, Guy (2014年10月11日). “Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle”. Aviation Week & Space Technology. 2014年10月27日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “NASA issued a stop-work order to Boeing and SpaceX on Oct 2, only to rescind it a week later on the grounds that a delay to development of the transportation service, "poses risks to the ISS crew, jeopardizes continued operation of the ISS, would delay meeting critical crew size requirements, and may result in the U.S. failing to perform the commitments it made in its international agreements."”
^Rhian, Jason (2014年10月23日). “Judge allows NASA to move forward on production of Commercial Crew spacecraft”. Spaceflight Insider. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Judge Marian Blank Horn of the United States Court of Federal Claims has cleared the way for NASA to proceed with its plans to have Boeing and SpaceX develop their spacecraft under the Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap).”
^Foust, Jeff (2015年1月5日). “GAO Denies Sierra Nevada Protest of Commercial Crew Contract”. SpaceNews. 2024年5月28日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “"Based on our review of the issues, we concluded that these arguments were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation," Smith said in the GAO statement. Sierra Nevada, in a statement issued Jan. 5, accepted the decision by the GAO...”
^Dean, James (2015年1月5日). “Sierra Nevada loses Commercial Crew contract protest”. Florida Today. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “GAO disagreed with Sierra Nevada's arguments about NASA's evaluation [...] Sierra Nevada also claimed NASA did not adequately review the realism of SpaceX's low bid and its financial resources, among several other issues the GAO concluded "were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation."”
^Rhian, Jason (2014年9月26日). “SNC lays off staff, files protest over NASA CCP selections, mulls Dream Chaser's future – Update”. Spaceflight Insider. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) has laid off employees who were working on the company's offering under NASA's Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Dream Chaser space plane. SNC has also stated that it will continue to develop the spacecraft for possible use with other nations' human-rated space programs...”
^SpaceRef staff (2014年9月25日). “Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser Program to Continue”. SpaceRef Business. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Sierra Nevada's Mark Sirangelo told the Denver Post the companies plans to go forward with development of the spacecraft and bid on future contracts. The news companies on the heals 〔ママ〕 of Sierra Nevada laying off 90 people from the Dream Chaser program.”
^Calandrelli, Emily (2016年1月14日). “NASA Adds Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles”. TechCrunch. 2016年2月1日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “The winners, Orbital ATK, SpaceX, and the newcomer Sierra Nevada Corporation, will be responsible for providing new cargo, disposing of unneeded cargo, and safely bringing back research samples from the International Space Station (ISS).”
^Foust, Jeff (2015年1月21日). “NASA Details Why Boeing, SpaceX Won Commercial Crew”. SpaceNews. 2024年5月28日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “SpaceX, though, planned to complete certification earlier than either Boeing or Sierra Nevada, giving it more margin to achieve NASA's goal of certification by the end of 2017.”
^Vincent, James (2016年5月12日). “Astronauts won't be flying to space in Boeing's Starliner until 2018”. The Verge. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Boeing's executive vice president Leanne Caret made the announcement, reports GeekWire, telling investors at a briefing: "We're working toward our first unmanned flight in 2017, followed by a manned astronaut flight in 2018."”
^Boyle, Alan (2016年5月11日). “Boeing's Starliner schedule for sending astronauts into orbit slips to 2018”. GeekWire. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “...it's been working through challenges related to the mass of the spacecraft and aeroacoustic issues related to integration with its United Launch Alliance Atlas 5 launch vehicle. In a follow-up to Caret's comments, Boeing spokeswoman Rebecca Regan told GeekWire that those factors contributed to the schedule slip.”
^ abGrush, Loren (2016年12月12日). “SpaceX officially delays first crewed flight of its Dragon capsule for NASA”. The Verge. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “In the wake of its September 1st rocket explosion, SpaceX has officially delayed the first crewed flight of its Crew Dragon vehicle [...] the first flight of the Crew Dragon with people on board is now slated to take place in May of 2018...”
^Berger, Eric (2017年1月28日). “Technical troubles likely to delay commercial crew flights until 2019”. Ars Technica. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “NASA currently has contracts with Russia through 2018 to get its astronauts to the station. However, a delay of test flights into 2019 would necessarily push the first "operational" commercial crew flights into spring or summer of 2019 at a minimum.”
^Berger, Eric (2017年1月18日). “As leadership departs, NASA quietly moves to buy more Soyuz seats”. Ars Technica. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “a new solicitation filed by NASA on Tuesday reveals that the agency is indeed seeking to purchase Soyuz seats for 2019 (NASA will negotiate with Boeing for these additional seats, which Boeing received from Russia's Energia as compensation for the settlement of a lawsuit involving the Sea Launch joint venture).”
^Foust, Jeff (2017年2月28日). “NASA signs agreement with Boeing for Soyuz seats”. SpaceNews. 2018年9月22日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “NASA has quietly signed a contract with Boeing for up to five additional Soyuz seats to provide for both additional U.S. crewmembers on the International Space Station and margin for commercial crew delays.”
^Dean, James (2018年8月3日). “NASA names first astronauts to fly SpaceX, Boeing ships from Florida”. USA Today. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “NASA on Friday named the astronaut test pilots who will be the first to fly SpaceX and Boeing capsules launched from Florida to the International Space Station, within a year or less, according to updated schedules.”
^“NASA revises launch targets for Boeing, SpaceX crew ships”. CBS News (2018年10月4日). 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “The first unpiloted test flight of a SpaceX commercial Dragon capsule intended to eventually ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station is moving to January, NASA announced Thursday. The first unpiloted test flight of a Boeing Starliner commercial crew ship is now targeted for the March timeframe.”
^Malik, Tariq (2019年3月8日). “SpaceX's Crew Dragon Looks Just Like a Toasted Marshmallow After Fiery Re-Entry”. Space.com. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “When SpaceX launched its first Crew Dragon spacecraft to the International Space Station last week, the gleaming white vehicle soared into space on its maiden voyage. Now, Crew Dragon is back, and it doesn't look so new. SpaceX's Crew Dragon returned to Earth today (March 8) with a smooth splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean...”
^Wattles, Jackie (2019年3月8日). “SpaceX Crew Dragon, built to carry humans, returns home from ISS”. CNN. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “NASA officials confirmed around 2:30 am ET that the capsule successfully detached from the space station. [...] and it splash down in the Atlantic Ocean around 8:45 am ET.”
^O'Callaghan, Jonathan (2019年4月22日). “SpaceX's Crew Dragon Suffers 'Anomaly' And May Have Exploded During A Test”. Forbes. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “SpaceX's historic Crew Dragon spacecraft that launched for the first time last month appears to have exploded, according to reports, potentially delaying the return to flight of humans from American soil. On Saturday, April 20, an explosion was reported at a test stand at SpaceX's Landing Zone 1 in Cape Canaveral, Florida.”
^ abBerger, Eric (2019年5月3日). “Dragon was destroyed just before the firing of its SuperDraco thrusters”. Ars Technica. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Koenigsmann said the "anomaly" occurred during a series of tests with the spacecraft, approximately one-half second before the firing of the SuperDraco thrusters. At that point, he said, "There was an anomaly and the vehicle was destroyed." [...] Before this accident, SpaceX and NASA had been targeting early October for the first crewed Dragon mission to the station. Now, that will almost certainly be delayed by at least several months into 2020.”
^Foust, Jeff (2019年8月20日). “Commercial crew providers prepare for fall test flights”. SpaceNews. 2019年8月21日閲覧。 “However, both an in-flight abort test and the Demo-2 crewed flight test were delayed after the Demo-1 spacecraft, being prepared for the in-flight abort test, was destroyed during preparations for a static-fire test in April at Cape Canaveral.”
^Foust, Jeff (2018年8月2日). “Boeing delays Starliner uncrewed test flight after abort engine test problem”. SpaceNews. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Boeing now plans to carry out an uncrewed test flight of its CST-100 Starliner commercial crew vehicle late this year or early next year as it addresses a problem found during a recent test of the spacecraft's abort engines. That revised schedule will push back a crewed test flight of the vehicle to the middle of 2019, said John Mulholland, vice president and program manager of Boeing's commercial crew program...”
^Mosher, Dave (2018年8月3日). “Leaky valves on Boeing's new spacecraft are increasing the risk that NASA astronauts could lose access to the space station”. Business Insider. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “But the agency is staring down a real possibility that it might not be able to send people into space after next year. That risk likely increased after Boeing discovered a problem in a new spacecraft system the company designed for NASA. The issue – a fuel leak – appeared on June 2, as Ars Technica first reported, when Boeing test-fired four thrusters designed to propel the Starliner away from a potential launchpad emergency.”
^Johnson, Eric M. (2019年3月21日). “Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources”. Reuters. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “Boeing's first test flight was slated for April but it has been pushed to August, according to two people with direct knowledge of the matter. The new schedule means that Boeing's crewed mission, initially scheduled for August, will be delayed until November.”
^Haynes, Korey (2019年3月21日). “Boeing's Starliner test flight delayed by months”. Astronomy. 2019年5月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年5月21日閲覧。 “...the company will no longer launch an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station in April, Reuters has reported. The flight is being pushed back to August. [...] This Starliner schedule slip will also delay Boeing's first crewed test flight, according to the same reporting, from August to November.”
^Joy, Rachel (2019年8月2日). “Boeing readies 'astronaut' for likely October test launch”. Florida Today. 2019年8月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年8月21日閲覧。 “...which will fly on the inaugural flight of the Starliner spacecraft now slated to launch late September or early October from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.”
^Etherington, Darrell (2019年11月5日). “Boeing's Starliner crew spacecraft launch pad abort test is a success”. TechCrunch. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “NASA's commercial crew partner Boeing has achieved a key milestone on the way to actually flying astronauts aboard its CST-100 Starliner: Demonstrating that its launch pad abort system works as designed, which is a key safety system that NASA requires to be in place before the aerospace company can put astronauts inside the Starliner.”
^Clark, Stephen (2019年11月7日). “Boeing identifies cause of chute malfunction, preps for Starliner launch”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Only two of the three main parachutes deployed, an issue Boeing has attributed to the lack of a secure connection between the pilot chute and one of the main chutes.”
^Chang, Kenneth (2019年12月20日). “Boeing Starliner Ends Up in Wrong Orbit After Clock Problem”. The New York Times. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “As an Atlas 5 rocket arced upward into the pre-dawn sky from Cape Canaveral in Florida on Friday morning [...] On top of the rocket was Starliner, a capsule built by Boeing, part of a NASA strategy to delegate to private companies to handle the astronaut transportation. [...] The mission will now be cut short, without docking at the International Space Station and likely delaying plans that are already a couple of years behind schedule. [...] the spacecraft's clock was set to the wrong time, and a flawed thruster burn pushed the capsule into the wrong orbit.”
^Weitering, Hanneke (2020年2月8日). “Boeing's 2nd Starliner software glitch could have led to an in-space collision”. Space.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said that an independent review team has identified several issues during the Orbital Flight Test (OFT) mission, particularly when it comes to the spacecraft's software. Along with the previously disclosed error with Starliner's onboard timer, a second software issue could have potentially led to a slight but problematic collision of two of the spacecraft's components, investigators determined.”
^Clark, Stephen (2020年2月28日). “Boeing says thorough testing would have caught Starliner software problems”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Boeing missed a pair of software errors during the Starliner's Orbital Flight Test. One prevented the spacecraft from docking with the International Space Station, and the other could have resulted in catastrophic damage to the capsule during its return to Earth.”
^NASA Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (2011年10月24日). “NASA Procedural Requirements for Mishap and Close Call Reporting, Investigating, and Recordkeeping w/Change 6”. The Campbell Institute. p. 49. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “High Visibility (Mishaps or Close Calls). Those particular mishaps or close calls, regardless of theamount of property damage or personnel injury, that the Administrator, Chief/OSMA, CD,ED/OHO, or the Center SMA director judges to possess a high degree of programmatic impact or public, media, or political interest including, but not limited to, mishaps and close calls that impact flight hardware, flight software, or completion of critical mission milestones.”
^ abBerger, Eric (2020年3月6日). “NASA declares Starliner mishap a "high visibility close call"”. Ars Technica. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “NASA chief of human spaceflight Doug Loverro said Friday that he decided to escalate the incident. So he designated Starliner's uncrewed mission, during which the spacecraft flew a shortened profile and did not attempt to dock with the International Space Station, as a "high visibility close call." This relatively rare designation for NASA's human spaceflight program falls short of "loss of mission" but is nonetheless fairly rare.”
^Vergano, Dan (2014年2月26日). “Spacewalk Mishap Tied to Clogged Helmet Filter”. National Geographic. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “An International Space Station mishap that nearly killed an astronaut last year happened because of a clogged spacesuit filter, a NASA investigation board said on Wednesday. [...] "This was a high-visibility close call," said NASA's human exploration chief William Gerstenmaier.”
^Kramer, Miriam (2014年2月26日). “Spacesuit Leak That Nearly Drowned Astronaut Could Have Been Avoided”. Space.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “After the spacesuit incident — which NASA calls a "high visibility close call" — space agency officials halted all non-emergency spacewalks until they could learn more about what caused the malfunction.”
^Clark, Stephen (2020年4月6日). “After problem-plagued test flight, Boeing will refly crew capsule without astronauts”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. [...] "We have chosen to refly our Orbital Flight Test to demonstrate the quality of the Starliner system," Boeing said in a statement [Monday]. "Flying another uncrewed flight will allow us to complete all flight test objectives and evaluate the performance of the second Starliner vehicle at no cost to the [taxpayer"]”
^ abTASS staff (2020年5月13日). “Роскосмос подтвердил подписание контракта на доставку астронавта NASA на корабле "Союз"” (ロシア語). TASS. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Roscosmos and NASA signed a contract for the delivery of one American astronaut on a crewed Soyuz MS spacecraft in Autumn 2020. [...] The head of NASA, Jim Bridenstein [...] also admitted the possibility of buying a second place.”
^ abClark, Stephen (2020年5月12日). “NASA inks deal with Roscosmos to ensure continuous U.S. presence on space station”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “"To ensure the agency keeps its commitment for safe operations via a continuous U.S. presence aboard the International Space Station until commercial crew capabilities are routinely available, NASA has completed negotiations with the State Space Corporation Roscosmos to purchase one additional Soyuz seat for a launch this fall," NASA said in a statement Tuesday. [...] NASA has not ruled out paying Russia's space agency for an additional Soyuz seat on a launch next April.”
^Atkinson, Ian (2020年1月17日). “SpaceX conducts successful Crew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “SpaceX successfully launched a unique Falcon 9 rocket at LC-39A for the in-flight abort test of their Crew Dragon spacecraft. The uncrewed test flight saw the spacecraft demonstrate its ability to escape a failing rocket mid-flight. Sunday's launch occurred at 10:30 AM Eastern, with a successful test resulting in the safe splashdown of the Dragon vehicle.”
^“Fiery SpaceX test of Crew Dragon capsule was 'picture perfect,' Elon Musk says”. CNBC (2020年1月19日). 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “SpaceX completed its last major test before flying astronauts to space on Sunday, in a critical high-speed mission that lasted mere minutes. [...] It's a crucial milestone for Musk's space company, as it will be key in determining whether NASA certifies the company's capsule to begin flying the agency's astronauts.”
^ abGrush, Loren (2020年1月19日). “SpaceX successfully tests escape system on new spacecraft — while destroying a rocket”. The Verge. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “On Sunday morning, SpaceX successfully launched one of its last big flight tests for NASA, a launch that could pave the way for the company to carry passengers into space later this year. [...] With this test now complete, the next big flight of the Crew Dragon will have people on board: NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.”
^ abMalik, Tariq (2019年6月26日). “This Is SpaceX's 1st Crewed Dragon Spaceship Destined for Space”. Space.com. 2019年8月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年8月21日閲覧。 “SpaceX's Crew Dragon, a crewed version of the company's robotic Dragon cargo ship, is one of two commercial space taxis that NASA will use to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner is the other. Both spacecraft are designed to carry up to seven astronauts.”
^Reichhardt 2018, "Although the ships seem like a nod to the past—Apollo-style "capsules" instead of the spaceplanes astronauts rode to orbit for 30 years [...] Both the Starliner and Crew Dragon will travel to the station and dock automatically, with no astronaut input. (The crew can take manual control if something goes wrong.)"
^ abcWall 2018, "("CST," by the way, stands for "crew space transportation.") Starliner also features sleek touch-screen displays and has about the same amount of internal volume as the SpaceX capsule."
^ abHowell 2018, "The Starliner has a diameter of 15 feet (4.5 meters); a length of 16.5 feet (5 m), which includes the service module; and a volume of about 390 cubic feet (11 cubic md)."
^ abWall 2018, "The gumdrop-shaped cargo Dragon is 14.4 feet tall and 12 feet wide at the base (4.4 by 3.7 meters), with 390 cubic feet (11 cubic meters) of internal volume."
^Reichhardt 2018, "Seating Capacity: Up to 7 NASA required that each vehicle be able to transport four people to and from the station. A fifth seat is available on both vehicles. Each company advertises a seating capacity of seven."
^Howell 2018, "Once the Starliner is attached to the space station, it's designed to stay there for 210 days — ample time to allow for the usual crew stays of six months, or 180 days."
^Etherington, Darrell (2020年4月18日). “NASA and SpaceX set historic first astronaut launch for May 27”. TechCrunch. 2020年5月26日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月26日閲覧。 “That Crew Dragon, which is the fully operational version, is designed for stays of at least 210 days, and the crew complement of four astronauts, including three from NASA and one from Japan's space agency, is already determined.”
^Reichhardt 2018, "Designers are working to a challenging safety standard: a 1-in-270 chance of a fatal accident, as compared to the 1-in-90 chance calculated for the space shuttle by the time it retired in 2011."
^Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is a modified version of its cargo counterpart, and will also launch atop the Falcon 9."
^Gray, Tyler (2020年3月9日). “CRS-20 – Final Dragon 1 arrives at the ISS”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “The first iteration of SpaceX's Dragon has successfully flown twenty missions to the ISS to date [...] CRS-20 is the last flight of the first-generation Dragon spacecraft, with the cargo version of the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft expected to take over services next year as part of Phase 2 of the CRS program, also known as CRS2.”
^Reichhardt 2018, "Diameter: 12.1 ft. Height: 23.6 ft. Dimensions include Dragon's cargo "trunk.""
^ abWall 2018, "Reusable?: Yes, Dragons are reusable, although test flights will fly new vehicles. Cargo trunk is discarded after each flight."
^Sheetz, Michael (2020年3月10日). “SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says”. CNBC. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Shotwell also noted that SpaceX is planning to reuse its Crew Dragon capsules. That was in doubt previously, as the leader of NASA's Commercial Crew program said in 2018 that SpaceX would use a new capsule each time the company flew the agency's astronauts. "We can fly crew more than once on a Crew Dragon," Shotwell said. "I'm pretty sure NASA is going to be okay with reuse."”
^Wall 2018, "Crew Dragon is also outfitted with an emergency escape system, which consists of eight SuperDraco engines built into the capsule's walls. If something goes wrong at any point during a Crew Dragon flight, these engines can fire up and carry the spacecraft and its passengers to safety."
^ ab“The Emergency Launch Abort Systems of SpaceX and Boeing Explained”. Space.com (2019年4月24日). 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “SpaceX has built the thrusters into the capsule's outer walls. Eight SuperDraco engines are embedded in the hull and will "push" the capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. [...] Boeing's CST-100 Starliner uses a similar launch escape system as the one on the Crew Dragon, but instead of eight SuperDraco engines, it uses four RS-88 engines, which are built by Aerojet Rocketdyne.”
^Bergin, Chris (2015年10月21日). “SpaceX DragonFly arrives at McGregor for testing”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “SpaceX's DragonFly test vehicle has arrived at its test facility in McGregor, Texas. DragonFly will be attached to a large crane, ahead of a series of test firings of its SuperDraco thrusters to set the stage towards the eventual goal of propulsive landings.”
^Wall 2018, "It makes parachute-aided splashdowns in the ocean when its work on orbit is done. [...] SpaceX founder and CEO Elon Musk had previously stated that Crew Dragon would eventually be capable of touchdowns on terra firma, using parachutes and retrorocket firings [...] But that option is apparently no longer in the works."
^ abDreier, Casey (2020年5月19日). “NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a Fantastic Deal”. The Planetary Society. 2020年6月27日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年6月27日閲覧。 “Crew Dragon $60 - $67 million; Starliner $91 - $99 million [...] Starliner and Crew Dragon per-seat costs use the total contract value for operations divided by the maximum 24 seats available. The upper range reflects the inclusion of NASA's program overhead.”
^ abMcCarthy, Niall (2020年6月4日). “Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA [Infographic]”. Forbes. 2020年6月27日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年6月27日閲覧。 “According to the NASA audit, the SpaceX Crew Dragon's per-seat cost works out at an estimated $55 million while a seat on Boeing's Starliner is approximately $90 million...”
^ abWall, Mike (2019年11月16日). “Here's How Much NASA Is Paying Per Seat on SpaceX's Crew Dragon & Boeing's Starliner”. Space.com. 2020年6月27日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年6月27日閲覧。 “NASA will likely pay about $90 million for each astronaut who flies aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule on International Space Station (ISS) missions, the report estimated. The per-seat cost for SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule, meanwhile, will be around $55 million, according to the OIG's calculations.”
^Reichhardt 2018, "Head / Leg Room: Diameter: 15 ft. Height: 16.6 ft. Dimensions include service (propulsion) module."
^Reichhardt 2018, "Reusable?: Yes Crew capsule can be reflown up to 10 times. Service module will be discarded after each flight."
^ abcClark, Stephen (2015年11月27日). “Aerojet Rocketdyne wins propulsion contracts worth nearly $1.4 billion”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年6月8日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Aerojet Rocketdyne, an aerospace propulsion contractor based in Sacramento, California, also announced this week it secured an expected contract from Boeing to provide thrusters, fuel tanks and abort engines for the CST-100 Starliner commercial crew capsule. [...] Each shipset includes four 40,000-pound thrust launch abort engines for the CST-100’s pusher escape system and 24 orbital maneuvering and attitude control thrusters, each generating 1,500 pounds of thrust for low-altitude abort attitude control and in-space orbit adjustments.”
^ abcGebhardt, Chris (2019年12月19日). “Boeing, ULA launches Starliner, suffers orbital insertion issue – will return home Sunday”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “The Crew Module is equipped with 12 Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that can produce 100 lbf of thrust each. [...] The Service Module contains 28 RCS thrusters that produce 85 lbf thrust each and 20 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines. The OMACs produce 1,500 lbf thrust each. [...] This suborbital trajectory was requested by Boeing so that under normal conditions, Starliner can then burn most of its unused launch abort fuel (via the Orbit Insertion Burn) to lighten its mass before it boosts its orbit to phase up to the Station.”
^ abRhian, Jason (2016年11月2日). “Launch Abort Engines for Boeing's CST-100 Starliner undergo testing”. Spaceflight Insider. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “The OMAC thrusters are 1,500-pound (6,672-newton) thrust class and are used for low-altitude launch abort attitude control, maneuvering, and stage-separation functions [...] The spacecraft's RCS engines are 100-pound (445-newton) thrust class and provide high-altitude abort attitude control and on-orbit maneuvering.”
^Wall 2018, "But Starliner touches down on land, not in the ocean, and therefore also sports impact-cushioning airbags at its rounded base."
^ abReichhardt 2018, "Landing Site: Western U.S. Starliner will parachute to dry land, like Soyuz, and use airbags to cushion the impact. Landing sites at White Sands, NM; Dugway Proving Ground, UT; Edwards AFB, CA; Willcox Playa, AZ."
^Howell 2018, "If an emergency takes place, though, the spacecraft can splash down in the ocean, just like Apollo and Dragon."
^Reichhardt 2018, "Each company has contracted for up to six additional taxi flights, during which the Starliner or Crew Dragon will dock with the station, remain attached for six months as a lifeboat for the crew, then return the astronauts to Earth."
^ abHarding, Pete (2017年2月26日). “Commercial rotation plans firming up as US Segment crew to increase early”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2019年8月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年8月21日閲覧。 “But with the new generation of US commercial crew vehicles, which can accommodate four astronauts, it will finally become possible to increase the station's crew size to its originally conceived number of seven, including four USOS crewmembers. [...] establishing the norm for all subsequent commercial crew vehicles, which will then continue to launch at a cadence of once every six months.”
^Carter, Jamie (2020年5月23日). “'Historic' NASA-SpaceX Rocket Launch Will Begin New Era In Human Spaceflight This Week”. Forbes. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “...Crew-1, that will see four astronauts—three astronauts from NASA (Mike Hopkins, Shannon Walker and Victor Glover) and one, Soichi Noguchi, from JAXA, the Japanese space agency—head from Florida to the ISS for a planned six-month expedition. Crew-1 will be SpaceX's first scheduled crew rotation mission.”
^The Planetary Society staff (2020年5月20日). “Your Guide to Crew Dragon's First Astronaut Flight”. The Planetary Society. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Not just NASA astronauts will fly aboard Crew Dragon—Japan's Soichi Noguchi will be 1 of 4 crewmembers on the very next flight scheduled for September 2020.”
^ abGebhardt, Chris (2019年5月29日). “NASA briefly updates status of Crew Dragon anomaly, SpaceX test schedule”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2019年8月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年8月21日閲覧。 “Even with the anomaly that occurred last month, Ms. Lueders was able to update the NAC directly on the current hardware readiness dates for the In Flight Abort test and the Demo-2 crew mission, both of which now have to use different Crew Dragon capsules than originally planned. [...] Current capsule reassignments: [...] SN 207; Original Assignment Crew-2; New Assignment Crew-1”
^ abFoust, Jeff (2020年7月24日). “NASA safety panel has lingering doubts about Boeing Starliner quality control”. SpaceNews. 2020年7月24日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年7月24日閲覧。 “...the first operational Crew Dragon mission, Crew-1. NASA said in a July 22 media advisory it anticipated a launch no earlier than late September. [...] NASA approved a contract modification in May that allows SpaceX to reuse boosters and capsule starting on the Crew-2 mission, which would launch in 2021. McErlean said NASA expects that the Crew-2 will use the Falcon 9 booster that launches Crew-1, and the capsule from the ongoing Demo-2 mission.”
^Gebhardt, Chris (2019年6月20日). “Station mission planning reveals new target Commercial Crew launch dates”. NASASpaceFlight.com. 2019年8月21日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2019年8月21日閲覧。 “...the two U.S. crew members who will be on that flight to the Station in May 2020 is completely dependent on whether Starliner or Dragon flies the mission. [...] Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut Soichi Noguchi will be on that first crew rotation mission regardless of which commercial partner flies it.”
^Harwood, William (2020年4月9日). “Soyuz crew docks with the International Space Station”. Spaceflight Now. 2020年5月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年5月25日閲覧。 “Strapped into the Soyuz MS-16/62S command module's center seat was veteran cosmonaut Anatoli Ivanishin, joined by rookie flight engineer Ivan Vagner on the left and Navy SEAL-turned-astronaut Chris Cassidy on the right.”
^“NASA says SpaceX can reuse Crew Dragon capsules and rockets on astronaut missions: report”. Space.com (2020年6月18日). 2020年6月30日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。2020年6月30日閲覧。 “The agency has approved the use of preflown Crew Dragon capsules and Falcon 9 rockets on SpaceX's crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS) [...] The first flight with used hardware could be Crew-2, the second contracted mission, which will likely lift off sometime in 2021...”