印度識字率(英語:literacy in India)是促成該國社會經濟進步的關鍵因素。[2][3]印度的識字率已從1947年宣佈獨立時的12%增長到2011年的74.04%。[4]雖然這是個大幅度進步,但仍低於當年世界平均識字率水平(84%)。該國於2011年進行的人口普查,顯示全國在2001年至2011年期間的識字率增長率為9.2%,低於前一個10年的增長速度。一項於1990年發表的分析研究,推測印度如果按照那時估計的進步進度,要到2060年才能達到全民識字的程度。[5]
根據印度歷史學家達蘭帕爾(英语:Dharampal)的研究,他從19世紀初英國文獻取得的資訊,認為前殖民時期的印度教育不但普及,且容易獲得,但女孩的入學率遠低於男孩,所有種姓(包括首陀羅和其他種姓)和社會階層的兒童都接受正規的、在戶外進行的教育。[35]達蘭帕爾指出,包括托馬斯·孟羅爵士(英语:Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet)在內的高級英國官員調查19世紀初仍在運作的印度本土教育機構的數量和類型、就讀學生的數量和狀況,以及教學內容,托馬斯·孟羅爵士提出當時每個村莊的印度教寺廟或清真寺都附設一所學校,所有社群的兒童都在這類學校就讀。孟買總督委員會的官員G. L. Prendergast曾於1921年表示:[36]
喀拉拉邦在1980年代後期於埃爾納古勒姆(科契市的中央商務區)發起一場"全民識字運動",這場運動"一方面由地區行政部門,另一方面由志願團體、社會活動家和其他人"合作。[60] On 4 February 1990, the Government of Kerala endeavoured to replicate the initiative on a statewide level, launching the Kerala State Literacy Campaign.[60]喀拉拉邦政府於1990年2月4日開始在全邦推廣此倡議 - 成為該邦的識字運動。[60]首先是通過多階段式挨家挨戶的調查走訪,以準確描繪識字情況和需要特別關注的地區。然後組織Kala Jāthas(文化團體)和Sāksharata Pada Yātras(識字徒步遊行),以提高人們對該運動的認識,營造有利的社會氛圍。[60]並建立一個由該邦的官員、知名社會人士、地方官員和資深志願工作者共同組成的綜合管理系統,以監督執行進度。[60]
坦米爾那都邦早在1923年就率先在馬德拉斯市(現稱清奈)所屬的學校中推出為孩童提供餐飲的計畫。此計畫在1960年代由該邦首席部長K. Kamaraj大規模推廣。1982年,時任首席部長M. G. Ramachandran博士決定將此項計畫擴展到所有在10年級以下就讀的孩童。坦米爾那都邦的午間供餐計畫是印度最知名的計畫之一。[65]坦米爾那都邦自1982年起開始藉由推動免費午餐計畫以促進學童的識字率,但當時有人批評這是選舉噱頭,也有經濟學家認為這在財政上不划算。[66]時任首席部長的MGR(英语:M. G. Ramachandra)於童年時曾親身體驗過家裡沒錢買食物,餓著肚子去上學的經驗,而親自啟動這項計畫,這一做法與19世紀日本採用的相似。[66]
^A. Dharmalingam; S. Philip Morgan. Women's work, autonomy, and birth control: evidence from two south India villages. Population Studies. 1996, 50 (2): 187–201. JSTOR 2174910. doi:10.1080/0032472031000149296.
^Mehta, Arun C. Elementary Education In India: Analytical Report 2007–08(PDF) (报告). New Delhi: National University of Educational Planning and Administration; Department of School Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. 2010. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2024-06-26) (英语).
^Ghosh, Suresh Chandra. Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India. History of Education. March 1995, 24 (1): 17–24. doi:10.1080/0046760950240102.
^ 42.042.1India Talks – Amartya Sen. MediaWeb India. [2009-09-20]. (原始内容存档于2012-02-27). ...would make India literate in 40 years, and the nationalist leaders rightly laughed it out of court, on the grounds that India did not have the patience to remain for 40 years without Universal Literacy. Now 50 years have gone by, and the country is still half illiterate, two-thirds of the women are illiterate...
^ 44.044.144.244.3India, 2005: A Reference Annual. Research and Reference Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 2005. ISBN 978-81-230-1230-8(英语).
^Economic Survey 2004–2005. Union Budget & Economic Survey. Ministry of Finance, Government of India. [2025-03-15]. (原始内容存档于2025-03-15).
^ 46.046.1((Central Statistical Organisation)). Statistical Pocket Book India: 2003(PDF). New Delhi: Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India. April 2004 [2025-03-15]. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2024-07-06) (英语).
^K.R. Nayar; Anant Kumar. Health Analysis – Kerala and Bihar: A Comparison. Yojana. July 2005, 49. SSRN 1354541. ...The inter-sectoral action needs to be recognized for achieving any health improvement in Bihar.
^Tom Sticht, Paradigms of Learning: The Total Literacy Campaign in India, 2004-07-07 [2009-11-30], (原始内容存档于2005-12-27), ...I served as a member of UNESCO's International Jury for Literacy Prizes ... in 1981 when the jury awarded a prize to the Department of Adult Education of the state of Bihar for its massive state-wide literacy campaign...
^ 54.054.1Bihar teachers under attendance watch. Bihar Times. 2009-09-10 [2009-11-30]. (原始内容存档于2010-01-03). ...the government last month warned that salaries of teachers in government schools would not be paid if they failed to ensure at least 75 percent attendance...
^ 61.061.161.261.3Jean Drèze; Amartya Sen, India: development and participation, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-925749-3, ...Himachal Pradesh's transition from mass illiteracy to near-universal elemensdddtary education has been even more impressive than Kerala's... taken place over a much shorter period in time in Himachal Pradesh than in Kerala, where sustained educational expansion began in the 19th century...
^Lalit Kumar Jha, Natural Resource Management: Mizoram, APH Publishing, 1997, ISBN 81-7024-781-0, ...Mizoram has certainly distinguished itself amongst the states of India... a closely knit society... village councils having a definite bearing on the social and administrative setups, educational facilities...
^ 64.064.1Mizoram imparts a lesson in literacy to the country. Rediff. 1999-11-22 [2009-12-06]. (原始内容存档于2025-03-15). ...The Mizoram government drew up a detailed plan primed towards achieving total literacy. Each animator was given the task of teaching five persons at a time... the Centre has laid stress on this program, sanctioning ₹ 4567,000 to establish 360 Continuing Education Centres and 40 more nodal centers spread across the state...
^ 66.066.166.266.3India fights illiteracy with lunch. Asia Times. 2008-05-20 [2009-11-28]. 原始内容存档于2008-11-19. ...noon-meal scheme for children was first pioneered in 1982 by iconic movie star and Tamil Nadu chief minister M. G. Ramachandran (1917–1987), the world's first film hero to head a government. MGR, as he was called, started the free lunch for school children scheme, ignoring cynics who said it was an electoral gimmick and economists who said it made little fiscal sense...
^Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, The progress of school education in India(PDF), Global Poverty Research Group, Economic and Social Research Council, March 2007 [2009-11-28], (原始内容(PDF)存档于2019-04-30), ...In late 2001, the Indian Supreme Court directed all states 'to implement the Mid-Day Meal Scheme by providing every child in every government and government-assisted primary school with a prepared midday meal with a minimum content of 300 calories and 8–12 grams of protein each day of school for a minimum of 200 days.' By 2006, the MDM scheme was near-universal in all states... the central government provides grains, funds transportation and also pays food preparation costs, though the state government is responsible for providing the physical infrastructure for cooking the meals... The scheme provides lunch to about 120 million children every school day and, as such, is the largest school meal scheme in the world...
^ 68.068.1A spectacular march by Rajasthan. Frontline (The Hindu). 2001-12-07 [2009-11-28]. 原始内容存档于2008-09-17. ...Rajasthan's improvement... recorded the highest percentage increase in literacy rate among the Indian states ... the percentage point increase in female literacy is the highest in Andhra Pradesh...
Dharampal. Introduction. The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century 3rd. Goa, India: Other India Press. 2000: 7–86 (英语). It is important to emphasize that indigenous education was carried out through pathshalas, madrassahs and gurukulas. Education in these traditional institutions — which were actually kept alive by revenue contributions by the community including illiterate peasants... These institutions were, in fact, the watering holes of the culture of traditional communities.已忽略未知参数|quote-pages= (帮助)
延伸閱讀
Calvi, Rossella, Federico Mantovanelli, and Lauren Hoehn-Velasco. "The Protestant Legacy: Missions and Human Capital in India." (2019) online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
Chaudhary, Latika, and Manuj Garg. "Does history matter? Colonial education investments in India." Economic History Review 68.3 (2015): 937–961.
Chaudhary, Latika. "Taxation and educational development: Evidence from British India." Explorations in Economic History 47.3 (2010): 279–293 online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
Chaudhary, Latika. "Determinants of primary schooling in British India." Journal of Economic History (2009): 269–302 online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
Natarajan, Dandapani. "Extracts from the All India Census Reports on Literacy." (2016) page 11 online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)