1933年4月1日,纳粹冲锋队号召国家抵制犹太商货。这些部队在柏林的犹太人开的百货商店前聚集,标牌上写道:“德国人!为自己抗争!不要从犹太人那里买东西。”(Deutsche! Wehrt Euch! Kauft nicht bei Juden!)[35]这所商店在1938年的水晶之夜被袭击,并交到了非犹太人家族手中1900年德意志帝国时期的纽伦堡以及其后的纽伦堡犹太会堂,该犹太会堂在1938年的水晶之夜期间被完全摧毁
1895,在德意志帝国议会前,民族主义领袖赫尔曼·艾尔沃特(德语:Hermann Ahlwardt)称犹太人是「掠食者、霍乱杆菌,出于德国人民的利益应该清除他们。[43]」1912年,泛德意志联盟领袖海因里希·克拉斯(德语:Heinrich Claß)在他的畅销书《如果我是皇上》(Wenn ich der Kaiser wär)中呼吁应取消所有德裔犹太人的国籍,将其打回外侨(Fremdenrecht)身份[44]。克拉斯同时呼吁,犹太人应该排除在一切德国生活之外,不许拥有土地、担任公职、或从事新闻、金融、自由职业等工作。[44]克拉斯将犹太人定义为任何在1871年德意志帝国成立之日皈依犹太教的人,或是有一个犹太祖父母的人。[44]
根据定义来讲,“种族”敌人如犹太人永不可归入民族共同体当中;他们必须完全从社会中清除出去。[58]德国历史学家克特写道纳粹党的“目标是建立乌托邦式的民族共同体,进行全方位的警视监督,所有试图反抗的行为,或类似的迹象、意图,都将受到残酷的打击。”[59]克特引用了1944年《社会异类办法》(Treatment of Community Aliens)中的一些资料,揭示了纳粹的些许社会政策:「公民…表明自己的努力无法达到国家社会的最低要求的话,将会被置于警视监督之下,如果这样都不能奏效的话,就把他们送入集中营。[60]」
整个1930年代,犹太人在法律、经济、社会权益上都受到了越来越多的限制。以色列历史学家弗里德兰德写道,在纳粹看来,德国的力量来自“血统的纯正和神圣的德国土地。”[64]1933年4月1日,一个次全国反犹集会进行抵制犹太商货运动,原计划持续一周,但由于缺乏大众支持,进行了一天后就不了了之。1933年,一系列包涵雅利安人字眼的法案被通过,将犹太人从关键职位上排除出去:如第三帝国的第一道反犹主义法案——《专业行政工作恢复法案(德语:Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums)》以及《医师法》(Physcians' Law)、禁止犹太人拥有农庄,或从事农业工作《农业法》(Farm Law)等。
犹太律师也被停职,在德累斯顿,犹太律师和法官被拖出办公室,并被殴打。[65]在前总统保罗·冯·兴登堡的要求之下,希特勒颁布特令,准许一次大战的犹太裔老兵、或有父子服役过的公务员留在其职位上。希特勒在1937年取消了这项特令。根据《预防学校人数过多法案》(Law to Prevent Overcrowding in Schools),犹太人被学校和大学开除,不能参加新闻报社协会,拥有报社,或成为报社编辑。[64]
1935年,希特勒颁布了《纽伦堡法案》,其中的《德国血统和荣誉保护法》(Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre)即禁止犹太人与“雅利安人”结婚或发生性行為,剥夺犹太人的德国国籍和国民基本权利。就“血统法案”而言,希特勒解释称其“试图通过法律途径解决这一问题,如果失败的话就将问题交由纳粹党,启用最终解决方案。”[67]「最终解决方案」是纳粹对屠杀犹太人的委婉语。1939年1月,他在公开演说中称:“如果犹太人在欧洲内外的跨国金融再次得逞,将国家拖入另一场世界大战的话,那么结果将不是全球的布尔什维克化或是犹太人的胜利,而是他们在欧洲的灭绝之日。”[68]该演讲被1940年的纳粹宣传电影《永远的犹太人》引用,其目的是提供一个从欧洲清除犹太人的理性蓝图。[69]
官方公布的死亡人数为91人,事实上应该远高于此。30,000人被送往集中营,包括达豪集中营、萨克森豪森集中营、布痕瓦尔德集中营、奥拉宁堡集中营[註 2],他们被关押数週后被释放,前提是答应在近期离开德国,或将财产上交纳粹党。[73]1938年11月11日,納粹政府通過了《犹太人持有武器禁令》(Verordnung gegen der Waffenbesitz der Juden),禁止犹太人持有枪支或其武器。[74]犹太人被集体要求赔偿迫害所造成的财物损失,价值将近几十万德国马克,并要缴纳超过十亿马克的“赎罪税”。[72]在这一轮迫害之后,犹太出境移民加速,而在德国的犹太公共生活不复存在。[72]
9月,希姆莱任命海德里希为党卫队国家安全部的部长。这个部门有七个机构组成,包括黨衛隊保安處和盖世太保。[90]他们负责监督党卫队在波兰的工作,并执行海因里希报告中处置犹太人的方案。第一次有组织的屠杀为「坦能堡行動」,由自卫團(德语:Selbstschutz)执行。犹太人之后被赶入遍佈於波蘭總督府的中心地带隔离区,由弗里茨·紹克尔管理的帝国劳动部監督服苦役。数以千计的人因虐待、疾病、饥饿、精疲力尽而倒毙,但至此仍没有出现系统化屠杀项目。但毋庸置疑的是,纳粹将服苦役作为了一种灭绝方式,甚至有了專有名詞——“死于苦役”(Vernichtung durch Arbeit)特指此事。
1940年10月,大區長官约瑟夫·布克尔和罗伯特·海因里希·瓦格纳(德语:Robert Heinrich Wagner)督办了「布克尔行動」(Operation Bürckel),将犹太人从他们的省份和被帝国兼并的阿尔萨斯-洛林地区赶入尚有余地的法国。[99]只有混血的犹太人没有被驱逐。[99]1940年10月22-23日晚,有6,500名犹太人被布克尔行动驱逐,并仅仅给予了至多两小时的警示时间,就被押解起来。9辆满载犹太人的列车在“没有对法国官方有任何告知”的情况下长驱直入,后者对此怏怏接受。[99]被安置人员不得携带任何物品,财物则全被德国官方没收。[99]德国外交部长约阿希姆·冯·里宾特洛甫则将维希政府的抗议以“最为拖拉的方式”进行处理。[99]结果,被布克尔行动驱逐的犹太人被维希政府拘禁在环境恶劣的居尔(Gurs)收容所、里韦萨尔特营、米勒斯营,等待机会返回德国。[99]
德国国防军与党卫队在反游击队和反犹太人的工作中彼此密切合作。[133]在1941年中期,党卫队骑兵旅赫尔曼·菲格莱因在“反游击队”普里皮亚季沼泽地杀死了699名红军士兵,1,100名游击队员和14,178名犹太人。[133]在行动前,菲格莱因命令将所有犹太成年人枪决,尔后将妇女而儿童赶入沼泽地。在行动后,指挥德國中央集團軍後衛部隊的馬克斯·馮·許恩克多夫(德语:Max von Schenckendorff)将军在1941年8月10日命令所有德国国防军後衛部隊在反游击队的任务上效法菲格莱因,并于1941年9月24-26日与党卫队一道在莫吉廖夫组织了联合演习,研究杀死犹太人的最佳方案。[133]演习的结果是警卫营第7连在一个叫金沙萨(Knjashizy)的小村子射杀了32名犹太人,军官们对此美名其曰称这是从人群中“筛查”游击队的方式。[134]第322营的战争日记上这样写道:
伊恩·克肖在他1983的著作——《第三帝国公众意见和政治异议》(Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich)一书中探讨了巴伐利亚纳粹时期的「日常历史」(Alltagsgeschichte)。[154]就巴伐利亚人的大多数态度来看,克肖认为最常见的态度是对犹太人的遭遇漠不关心。[155]克肖称大多数巴伐利亚人只是模糊地知道“浩劫”的存在,较之“犹太人问题的最终解决方案”来说他们更关心正在进行的战争。[155]克肖做了一个类比:“仇恨建造了通往奥斯维辛的路,但做铺垫的却是冷漠。”[156][157]
在研究犹太或德意志反纳粹统治问题上,德国历史学家克里斯托弗·迪珀(德语:Christof Dipper)在他1983的论文《德国抵抗运动和犹太人》(Der Deutsche Widerstand und die Juden)称绝大多数反纳粹民族保守主义者也是反犹主义。[158]迪珀写到民族保守主义“官僚就法律上对排斥犹太人一直到1938年都坐视不理。”[160]虽然迪珀注意到德国抵抗组织没有一个支持大屠杀,但他也提到民族保守主义者也没有打算在推翻希特勒后恢复犹太人的权益。[158]迪珀继续辩称,反对派“中大部分德国人... 认为“犹太问题”存在,应该得到解决...”。[158]
德国历史学家汉斯·布海姆(德语:Hans Buchheim)搜集了法兰克福奥斯维辛审判的迫害见证人资料,在1965年写成论文《命令与服从》(Command and Compliance)。文章提到屠杀犹太人和其他人时,命令并没有添加胁迫,执行该命令的是出于自由意志。[165]布海姆写道回避执行杀戮命令的机会“...不但随时出现,而且比人们所愿意承认的更加实际...”[165],并写道没有证据显示拒绝履行命令的党卫队员被拖入集中营或是被处决。[166]不但如此,党卫队规章禁止“无端的虐待”,希姆勒要求他的手下保持“风度”,虐待被认为是行为人极端残忍,或是期望突出表现自己是个非常热心的纳粹党员。[165]最后,他认为非犯罪倾向者施刑是因为他们愿意遵守团体价值,害怕被贴上“懦弱”的标签。[167]
大屠杀历史学家克里斯托弗·布朗宁于1992著书《普通人:预备警卫营101营和波兰的最后解决方案》(Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland),他在其中讨论了德国秩序警察预备营101营,该营负责将犹太人围捕,送往纳粹死亡营。预备营的服役者都是来自汉堡的中年男子,工人阶级出身。他们不适合执行军事任务,也没有在荼毒生灵上接受太多训练。司令员则为部下给出选择:如果他们觉得受不了的话,就可以不参加。绝大多数人没有拒绝——一个500人的营中只有15人选择退出。[168]根据米尔格拉姆实验,布朗宁认为营队的士兵们之所以杀人,是因为服从权威和朋輩壓力,而不是嗜血或是仇恨。该书的隐含意思是当环境是紧密团结的群体时,绝大多数人会服从权威,并被认为是合法的,虽然道德上感到令人憎恶——这一假说在米尔格拉姆实验中得到了详细研究。
九月份,在维尔纳犹太区爆发了一场短暂的起义。十月份,600名犹太囚犯,包括犹太苏联战俘,试图逃离索比堡死亡集中营。犹太囚犯杀死了11名德国纳粹党卫队长官以及一些集中营护卫。但是,这一行为被德国纳粹军队发现了,纳粹军队企图放火烧死这些犹太囚犯,结果集中营中的犹太人不得不在熊熊烈火中奔忙逃命。在这次逃亡过程中,牺牲了300名犹太囚犯。而那些幸存者要么在营地周围的矿场中丧生,要么重新被俘虏并惨遭杀害。大约只有60名犹太人成功逃离了集中营并加入了苏维埃党派。1944年10月7日,位于奥斯维辛的250名犹太特遣队队员攻击了守卫(英语:Sonderkommando Revolt in Auschwitz),并用炸药炸了四号火葬场,这些炸药是三名女囚犯从附近的一个工厂中偷偷运出来的。在这次起义过程中,有三名德国纳粹守卫被杀死,其中一个被塞到了火炉中。特遣队队员试图发起一场大规模的起义运动,但是很快全部250名犹太特遣队队员都被杀害了。
对于绝大多数的犹太人而言,反抗运动只能采取延迟、逃避、协商、谈判等被动的形式,在可能的情况下,还可以采取贿赂德国官员的形式。纳粹分子强迫犹太人群体自行维持群体的治安,通过在德国建立德意志犹太人协会(Reichsvereinigung der Juden)和在被占领的波兰领地的城市犹太区中组建“犹太居民委员会”等组织,以此诱使犹太人采取贿赂德国官员的形式来逃避迫害。每当犹太人拿出贿赂用的财物时,德国军官就承诺做出让步,这使得犹太群体中的领导者在这种善意的妥协行为中越陷越深,使得犹太群体不可能做出奋起反抗的决定。犹太人大屠杀中的幸存者亚历山大·基梅尔(Kimel)写道:“居住于犹太区的青年人幻想与纳粹分子作战,我认为尽管存在着多种因素阻碍我们对此做出回应,但是最重要的因素是隔离和历史上形成的接受殉难的心理。”[214]
屠杀匈牙利犹太人的计划在纳粹内部遭到了反对,一些人建议希特勒应与盟国进行交易,释放这些犹太人以换取有利的和平协议。在伊斯坦布尔,希姆莱的代理人与英国特工及犹太组织的代表曾进行过非正式的商谈,艾希曼曾一时计划以一百万犹太人交换一万卡车的货物——即所谓“鲜血换货物(英语:Blood for goods)”计划,但这样大规模的交易并没有实际可能。
1942年2月,一名从切姆诺死亡营逃出来的囚犯,雅各·雅诺维斯基(Grojanowski),抵达了华沙犹太区,他向华沙犹太区一个安息日群体(Oneg Shabbat)详细地讲述了切姆诺集中营的情况。他的报告被称为雅诺维斯基报告,通过波兰的地下组织(Delegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj)将这些消息传播到了犹太区以外的波兰乌兹市,到1942年6月,这些消息传播到了伦敦。到这时为止这些人听到该报告之后采取了什么行动是不得而知的。[179][223][224][225]
与此同时,到2月1日美国的军事信息办公室决定不对外公布关于集中营对犹太人的屠杀情况的信息,因为这会误导民众误认为这场战争仅仅是一个关于犹太人的问题。[226]
1940年9月,作为波兰地下党、家乡军的一名成员,维托尔德·皮尔基上校想出了一个进入奥斯维辛集中营的方案,那就是主动要求被送往奥斯维辛,他是唯一一个主动要求被送往奥斯维辛并被囚禁的人。他组织了一个地下网络——军事组织联盟(英语:Związek Organizacji Wojskowej)(Związek Organizacji Wojskowej),这个地下网络可随时发起一场起义运动,但是该组织认为起义成功的概率非常低。军事组织联盟所提供的许多详细的报告成为西方同盟国获取关于奥斯维辛集中营情报信息的主要来源。1943年8月,皮尔基从奥斯维辛集中营逃出来,并带来了重要信息,这些信息成为一份包含两部分的报告的基本依据,这份报告后来被送到了位于伦敦的战略情报局(OSS)。该报告中包含了关于毒气室的详细信息,也讲述了“挑选”过程以及消毒试验。报告中陈述说,比尔克瑙有三个火葬场,每天能够焚烧10000个人,且一天之中有30000人都被毒气杀害。作者写道:“在历史中再也无法找到如此残忍地残害人类生命的先例”。[233]战争结束之后当皮尔基返回波兰时,共产党当局逮捕了他,指控他为波蘭流亡政府间谍。在一场摆样子的审判中他被处以死刑,并在1948年5月25日被处决。
在1939年到1941年,在心理医院中有80,000-100,000位心理疾病患者被处死、儿童5,000位;犹太人1,000位。[352]在心理医院外,人数约为20,000位 (根据安乐死中心哈泰姆城堡(Schloss Hartheim)的副主任格奥尔格·雷诺大夫(Dr. Georg Renno)报告)或400,000位(毛特豪森集中营司Frank Zeireis)。[352]另有300,000人被强制绝育。[353]从总数上来看,约有200,000位有心理疾病的患者被处死,而该数目在历史上并不受到重视。与物理残疾的人一样,患有侏儒症的人也被处死。很多人被关入笼子里展出,或是被纳粹拿来当做实验品使用。[354]虽然没有受到正式的参与命令,精神病院和精神病医生在各个阶段都积极配合了这项暴行,以及之后的处理各种“不受欢迎的”人和犹太人。[355]在德国天主教和新教的强烈抗议后,希特勒于1941年8月24日命令取消T4行动。[356]
这项行动的名称来源于Tiergartenstraße 4,后者是柏林蒂尔加滕(Tiergarten)区一个小别墅的地址,是福利和照顾机构总部的所在地,[357]由菲利普·鲍赫勒和卡尔·勃兰特领导,前者为希特勒的私人总理(Kanzlei des Führer der NSDAP),后者为希特勒的私人医生。
^"The assertion that Luther's expressions of anti-Jewish sentiment have been of major and persistent influence in the centuries after the Reformation, and that there exists a continuity between Protestant anti-Judaism and modern racially oriented antisemitism, is at present wide-spread in the literature; since the Second World War it has understandably become the prevailing opinion."
^Cohen, Philip J. (1996). Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-760-7.
^Wolfgang Benz , Barbara Distel (ed.): The place of terror . History of the National Socialist Concentration Camps. Volume 9: Labor education camps, ghettos, youth protection camps, police detention camps, special camps, gypsy camps, forced labor camps. CH Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57238-8 , p. 326.
^Gentile, Carlo. The Police Transit Camps in Fossoli and Bolzano – Historical report in connection with the trial of Manfred Seifert. Cologne.
^The inscription on the memorial stone raised in the place of the barn at Jedwabne read: "Place of torture and execution of the Jewish population. The Gestapo and Nazi gendarmerie burned 1,600 people alive on 10 July 1941." (波蘭語:Miejsce kaźni ludności żydowskiej. Gestapo i żandarmeria hitlerowska spaliła żywcem 1600 osób 10.VII.1941.). In 2001 the stone was removed and deposited in the Polish Army Museum in Białystok because it did not present the confirmed number of dead.
^Hillgruber, Andreas "War in the East and the Extermination of the Jews" pp. 85–114 from The Nazi Holocaust Part 3, The "Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder Volume 1 edited by Michael Marrus, Mecler: Westpoint, CT 1989 pp. 102–103.
^Hillgruber, Andreas "War in the East and the Extermination of the Jews" pp. 85–114 from The Nazi Holocaust Part 3, The "Final Solution": The Implementation of Mass Murder Volume 1 edited by Michael
^ 170.0170.1170.2170.3Christopher R. Browning. Arrival in Poland(PDF file, direct download 7.91 MB complete). Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. Penguin Books: 52, 77, 79, 80. 1992 [2013-05-01]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2013-10-19). Also:PDF cache archived by WebCite.
^Mgr Stanis?aw Jab?oński (1927–2002). Hitlerowski obóz w Trawnikach. The camp history. Trawniki official website. [2013-04-30]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-03) (波兰语).
^Aktion Reinhard(PDF). Yad Vashem. [2013-09-17]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2014-01-23).
^Although Che?mno was not technically part of Operation Reinhard, it began functioning as an extermination camp in December 1941.Yadvashem.org (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
^Che?mno, which used gas vans rather than gas chambers to commit mass murder, had its roots in the extension of the Euthanasia Program to the Warthegau and the subsequent liquidation of large numbers of that region's Jews beginning in September 1941. See Montague 2012, pp. 9–48].
^Piper 1998,第163頁 See also Goldensohn 2005,第298頁, quoting Rudolf Höss: "We cut the hair from women after they had been exterminated in the gas chambers. The hair was then sent to factories, where it was woven into special fittings for gaskets." Höß said that only women's hair was cut and only after they were dead. He said he had first received the order to do this in 1943.
^* Bauer, Yehuda. Forms of Jewish Resistance During the Holocaust. In The Nazi Holocaust: Historical Articles on the Destruction of European Jews. Vol. 7: Jewish Resistance to the Holocaust, edited by Michael R. Marrus, 34–48. Westport, Connecticut: Meckler, 1989.
Bauer, Yehuda, They chose life: Jewish resistance in the Holocaust, New York, The American Jewish Committee, 1973.
^Memorandum, Arthur Sweetser to Leo Rosten, 1 February 1942, quoted in Eric Hanin, "War on Our Minds: The American Mass Media in World War II" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, 1976), ch. 4, n.6
^Het Parool, 27 September, page 4–5. Concentration camps: where the Nazi's bring their ideals in practice, NIOD (Dutch Institute of War Documentation), Amsterdam
^"Byłem Numerem: swiadectwa Z Auschwitz" by Kazimierz Piechowski, Eugenia Bozena Kodecka-Kaczynska, Michal Ziokowski, Hardcover, Wydawn. Siostr Loretanek, ISBN 978-83-7257-122-9
^Czech 1989, p. 920, 933, which uses information from a series called Hefte von Auschwitz, and cited in Kárný 1998, p. 564. The original German is: 25. November Im KL Auschwitz II kommen 24 weibliche Häftlinge ums Leben, von denen 13 unmittelbar getötet werden.
^"Maps of the Death Marches" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). Holocaust Encyclopedia. ushmm.org. Retrieved 27 September 2012. According to Krakowski 1989, p. 476, death marches were a frequent occurrence throughout the war. The inaugural one commenced on 14 January 1940 in occupied Poland, when the SS escorted 800 Jewish POWs from the Polish army to Biała Podłaska from Lublin—a distance of 100km in a matter of days in the depths of Polish winter. Massacred all along the way, less than 5% of the 800 survived the journey.
^A film with scenes from the liberation of Dachau, Buchenwald, Belsen and other Nazi concentration camps, supervised by the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information, was begun but never finished or shown. It lay in archives until first aired on PBS's Frontline on 7 May 1985. The film, partly edited by Alfred Hitchcock, can be seen online at Memory of the Camps (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
^ 262.0262.1The Russian Academy of Science Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt-Peterburg 1995 ISBN 978-5-86789-023-0
^ 263.0263.1263.2Lucy Dawidowicz. The War Against the Jews, Bantam, 1986.p. 403
^ 265.0265.11.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens are estimated to have died as a result of the Nazi occupation and the war. Estimates are from Polish scholar, Franciszek Piper, the chief historian at Auschwitz. Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
^Donald L. Niewyk, Francis R. Nicosia. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. 2000: 49. ISBN 0231112009. Those who offer explicit or implicit arguments for including them among the victims of the Holocaust, such as Bohdan Wytwycky in The Other Holocaust and Christian Streit and Jürgen Forster in The Policies of Genocide, point out that the appallingly high losses among Soviet prisoners of war were racially determined. The Germans did not usually mistreat prisoners from other Allied countries, but in the Nazi view Soviet prisoners were Slavic "subhumans" who had no right to live. ... Those who would include Polish and Soviet civilian losses in the Holocaust include Bohdan Wytwycky in The Other Holocaust, Richard C. Lukas in The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Rule, 1939–1944, and Ihor Kamenetsky in Secret Nazi Plans for Eastern Europe.
^Martin Gilbert. The Routledge atlas of the Holocaust, 3rd Ed.. London: Routledge. 2002: 245. ISBN 0-415-28145-8. The gassing of more than two million Jews at Auschwitz began on 4 May 1942.... (p. 100) By the most exact estimates of recent research, the number of Jews killed in Europe between September 1939 and May 1945 was nearly six million. This estimate is a minimum; the deaths shown opposite total just over 5,750,000, and are based on such country-by-country and region-by-region records as survive. (p. 245)
^Shoah Research Center;– Albania [4] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) The Jews of Albania during the Zogist and Second World War Periods 存档副本. [2007-09-27]. (原始内容存档于2007-09-27). and see also Norman H. Gershman's book Besa: Muslims Who Saved Jews in World War II – for reviews etc [5] (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (all consulted 24 June 2010)
^Michele Sarfatti, The Jews in Mussolini's Italy: From Equality to Persecution (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006) (Series in Modern European Cultural and Intellectual History).
^Gaymon Bennett, Ted Peters, Martinez J. Hewlett, Robert John Russell (2008). "The evolution of evil". Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p.318. ISBN 978-3-525-56979-5
^Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8047-3615-2
^United States Holocaust Memorial Museum – Holocaust Era in Croatia: 1941–1945, Jasenovac (go to section III Concentration Camps) USHMM.org (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
^Gilbert, Martin. The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust. Routledge, London & New York. 2002. ISBN 0-415-28145-8. (ref Map 182 p 141 with Romani deaths by country & Map 301 p 232) Note: formerly The Dent Atlas of the Holocaust; 1982, 1993.
^Robert L. Canfield, Turko–Persia in Historical Perspective p. 212 – ="As Turkistanis they joined the so-called "Eastern Legions", which were part of the Wehrmacht and later the Waffen-SS, to fight the Red Army (Hauner 1981:339-57). The estimates of their numbers vary between 250,000 and 400,000, which include the Kalmyks, the Tatars and members of the Caucasian ethnic groups (Alexiev 1982:33)"
^Augustine, Dolores, Book Review (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) of Niven, Bill, The Buchenwald Child: Truth, Fiction, and Propaganda in Central European History 41:01, Cambridge University Press
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